3312.
50 &
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Library of the
Museum of
Comparative Zoology
^0^
B'
'^^^'^^^'^^coirF-c'Fj^
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Indiana Academy of Science,
1 89 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS.
188^-1891.
BKOOKVILLE, IND.
MUS. COMP. ZOOL^
LIBRARY
M 5 tsi^a
RD
atroi^s.
D. II. Baldwin & Co Indianapolis.
BowEN & Merrill Co. Indianapolia.
Noble C. Butler Indianapolis.
Joseph Eastman ••-.... Indianapolis.
E. S. Elder .- • • • Indianapolia.
C. W. Fairbanks Indianapolis.
Chas. B. Fletcher Indianapolis.
S. S. Gorby Indianapolis.
Griffith Bros Indianapolis.
Franklin W. Hayes Indianapolis.
T. H. Hibben Indianapolia.
C. E. Hollenbeck Indianapolia.
Alex. .Tamf^on Indianapolis.
Sylvester Johnson Irvington.
J. I. Kingsbury Irvington.
Jas. T. Layman Irvington.
Jas. W. Marsee Indianapolis.
Ferd. L. Mayer Indianapolis.
Model Clothing Store Indianapolis.
S. E. Mor-ss Indianapolis.
John H. Oliver Indianapolis.
Progress Clothing Co Indianapolia.
Louis Riebold Indianapolia.
W. B. Roberts Indianapolis.
Geo. ay. Sloan Indianapolis.
PROCEEDINGS
Indiana Academv of Science,
1 89 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS.
188^-1891.
O. r. HAY. I
C. A. WALDO, Hditor;
J. M. cor I.TEH. I
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Officers of the Academy . 1
Committees of the Academy 2
Past Officers of the Academy 3
Past Committees of the Academy 3
Members, honorary, uon-resident and active 5
Field meetings 9
Author list and bibliography of papers presented to the Academy 14
Abbreviations 32
Papers of the meeting of 18'J1 in full, by abstract, or by title; in the order of the
programme 33
OFFICERS, 1891-92,
J. L. CAMPBELL.
YlCE-PltKSIDENTS.
J. C. ARTHUR, W. A. NO YES.
Secretary.
AMOS W. BUTLER.
Treasurer.
C. A. WALDO.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,
•J. L. Campbell, J. C. Aktiiuu, W. A. Noyes,
Amos W. Butler, C. A. Waldo, Jopin M. Ct)ULTEK,
J. P. D. Joiix, T. C. Mendenhall, O. P. Hay.
CURATORS.
Botany Johx M. Coulter.
Ichthyology Carl H. Eigenmann.
Geology S. S. Gorby.
Ornithology .' Amos W. Butler.
Herpetology O. P. Hay.
Entomology F. M. Webster.
Mammology "" E. R. Quick.
(1)
COMMITTEES, 1891-92.
C< M )PKHATI( )N OF EDT'CATK »XAL S( )CIP:TIKS.
H. T. Eddy, C. A. Wai.do, ('. H. IIigenmann.
riiOGRAMMK.
Stanley ('()iM/n:i!, Ai,k\andki; Smith.
MEMBERSHIT'.
J. T. ScovKij,, W. S. Bi.at<i[i,i;y, J". ^I. Webster.
NOMINATIONS.
J. M. Cori.TER, H. A. HrsTON, A. .1. Bi(;m:y.
AUDITING.
P. S. Bakki:, W. \y. NoKMAX.
PLAN FOR PUBLICATION.
A. W. BiTi.EK, O. p. Hay, Stanley Coilteu.
STATE LIBRARY.
C. A. Waldo, .1. M. Coulteu, W. A. Xoves.
INCORPORATK )X.
< ). P. Jenkins, B. W. Eyer.mann, C. A. Waldo.
LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION OF WEEDS.
J. C. Akthii:, .1. M. CoiLTEii, W. H. Evans.
KDITORS.
( ). P. Hay, C. a. Waldo, J. M. Coi ltek.
3
PAST OFFICERS.
PRESIDENTS.
1885. J. P. D. .Jdii.v, pro tt'm. 1887-88. J. P. D. .Toiiv.
1885-8(). David S. Jokdax. 1888-89. Toiin C. Biiannmck.
1SS()-S7. John M. CiiULTEK. 1889-90. T. C. Mkndkmiai.l
1890-91. O. P. Hav.
SECRETARY.
1885-91. Amos W. Bitmcu.
TREASURERS.
1S.S5-90. (). P. .Ii-.NKixs. 1891. C. A. Waldo.
LIBRARIAN.
1886. .1. N. TIi-KTv.
PAST COMMITTEES.
ORGANIZATION.
1S85. ( ). V. .Tknkins, .J. C. Brannei!, S. P. Stoddakd.
MEMBERSHIP.
188.V8(J. D. W. Dexms. E. R. (iricic, .Ierome McNeii.i..
1886-87. J. P. D. .loii.v, .1. :M. Coietei:, O. P. Hav.
1887-88. 0. W. Hak.mtt, B. W. Evkk.manx, O. P. Hay.
PROGRAMME.
1885-86. <>. P. Je.vkix.s, P). R. Moore, J. C. Braxner.
1886-87. C. R. Barnes, B. W. Evermann.
1887-88. D. S. Jordan, C. A. Waldo.
1889-90. O. P. Jexkixs, A. P. Carman.
1890-91. C. Li:o Mees, C. H. Gii.i'.ert, J. T. Scovki.l.
NOMINATING.
18S()-S7. J. ('. Bkanner, Stanley Col'lter, P. S. Baker.
1887-88. D. W. Dexnis, J. T. SrovKi.L, J. S. Kincsley.
PAST COMMITTEES— Continued.
INCORPORATION.
1887-88. T. P.. REDDixfi, MAuracK Thompson, J. P. D. .loiix, A. W. Biti.er.
1890-91. o. P. JicNKiNs, B. W. EvEUMANN, C. A. Waldo.
PUBLICATION.
1887-91. A. W. BiTLER, B. W. Evekmaxx, Stanley Coiltek.
LEGISLATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATIVE BIRDS.
1887-91. A. W. Butler, D. S. .Iordax, B. W. Evermaxn.
ON DIVIDINO THE ACADEMY INTO SPXTIONS.
1887-88. .T. P. D. John, J. C. Arthur, W. A. Noyes, O. P. .Texkins, D. W.
Dexnis.
LIBRARY.
1887-88. T. B. Ri:i.i)in<;, W. DeM. Hooper, J. S. Kix<isi,kv.
AUDITING.
1887-88. P. S. Baker," C. A. Waluo.
1889-91. P. S. Baker, C. H. Gh.hert.
STATE LIBRARY.
1889-91. C. A. Waldo, J. M. Coulter, O. P. Jexkixs.
CO-OPERATION OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES,
1890-91. D. S. Jordan, 0. P. Jenkins, R. G. Gillum.
LEGISLATION FOR THE RESTRICTION AND DESTRI^CTION OF
WEEDS.
1890-91. J. C. Arthur, J. M. Coulter, W. H. Evans.
T. C. Mendenhall, J. C. Arthur, J. S. Kingsle^v, Daniel Kirkwood, P. S.
Baker, II. W. Wiley and J. M. Coulter were appointed a comnaittee to in-
vite the American Association for the Advancement of Science to meet
in Indianapolis in 1889 or 1890,
MEMBERS.
HONORARY MEMBER.
Daniel Kirkwoo'l Eiverside, Cal.
NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.
John C. Branner Palo Alto, Cal.
D. H. Campbell Palo Alto, Cal.
B. W. Evermann . Washington, D. C.
Charles H. Gilbert Palo Alto, Cal
C.AV. Green Palo Alto, Cal.
C. "\V. Hargitt Syracuse, N. Y.
Edward Hughes Palo Alto, Cal.
O. P. Jenkins Palo Alto, Cal.
David S. Jordan Palo Alto, Cal.
J. S. Kingsley Tufts College, Mass.
Robert B. Warder Washington, D. C.
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
J. Alex. Adair Hanover, Ind.
.r. C. Arthur Lafayette, Ind.
Harry F. Bain Moore's Hill, Ind.
Philip 8. Baker Greencastle, Ind.
Timothy H. Ball Crown Point, In.l.
Charles S. Beachler Atlanta, <;a.
Guido Bell Indianapolis, Ind.
(leorge W. Benton Indianapolis, Ind.
Alexander Black Greencastle, Ind.
Willis S. Blatchley Terre Haute, Ind.
Andrew J. Bigney Baltimore, Md.
Henry L. Bolley Fargo, X. D.
M. A. Brannon F. Wayne, Ind.
W. Y. Brown Greencastle, Ind.
.1. B. Kuiris Cloverdale, Ind.
Amos W. lUitler Brookville, Ind.
Noble C. Butler Indianapolis, Ind.
J. L. Campbell Crawfovdsville, Ind.
AVilliam B. Clarke • Indianapolis, Ind.
Fred. Clearwaters Greencastle, Ind.
John M. Coulter Bloomington, Ind.
Stanley Coulter . Lafayette, Ind.
U. O. Cox ^Nlankato, Minn.
M. E. Crowell Indianapolis, Ind.
Will Cumback Greensburg, Ind.
George L. Curtiss Greencastle, Ind.
B. M. Davis Irvington, Ind.
D. W. Dennis Richmond, Ind.
Chas. I\. Dryer Ft. AVayne, Ind.
II. T. Eddy Terre Haute, Ind.
Carl II. Eigenmann Bloomington, Ind.
E. S. Elder Indianapolis, Ind.
Samuel (i. Evans Evansville, Ind.
E. M. Fisher ' Unneyville, Ind.
AVilbur A. Fisk Richmond, Ind.
J. .1. Flather Lafayette, Ind.
Robert G. Gillum Terre Haute, Ind.
V. F. Glick Xewbern, Ind.
Katherine E. Golden . Lafayette, Ind.
Michael Golden Lafayette, Ind.
C.F.Goodwin Brookville, Ind.
S. S. (iorby Indianapolis, Ind.
^y. F. AI. Goss Lafayette, Ind.
A'ernon Gould Rochester, Ind.
Thomas (iray Terre Haute, Ind.
G. K. (ireene New Albany, Ind.
Edwin Stanton Hallett Corydon, Ind.
A. S. Hathaway Terre Haute, Ind.
O. P. Hay Chicago, 111.
A\"m. Perry Hay Irvington, Ind.
Franklin AV. Hayes Indianapolis, Ind.
Robert Hessler Indianapolis Ind.
AV. A. Hester Evansville, Ind.
T. II. Hibben Indianapolis, Tiid.
W. De M. Hooper Indianapolis, Ind.
<Teo. C. Hubbard Moore's Hill, Ind.
H. A. Huston Lafayette, Ind.
Thomas M. Iden . Irvington, Ind.
Alex. Jameson Indianapolis, Tnd.
A. E. Jessup Carmel, Ind.
J. P. D. John (ireeuL-astle, Ind.
Sylvester Johnson Irvington, Ind.
W.B.Johnson Franklin, Ind.
J. G. Kiniisbury Irvington, Ind.
AV. II. Kirchner Terre Haute, Ind.
Daniel Layman Indianapolis, Ind.
W. S. Lemen . . ■ lndiana])oli8, Ind.
Robert E. Lyons Bloomin.>;ton, Ind.
Herbert W. McBride . . Elkhart, Ind.
Kobert Wesley McBride Waterloo, Ind.
I). T. McDougal Lafayette, Ind.
F. M. McFarland Palo Alto, Cal.
J. "\V. ^Nlarsee Indianapolis, Ind.
A'ernon F. Marsters Bloomington, Ind.
C. Leo Mees Terre Haute, Ind.
T. C. Mendenhall Washington, I). C.
Joseph ]\Ioore Richmond, Ind.
Warren K. Aloorehead Xenia, Ohio.
David M. ]\Iottier Bloomington, Ind.
J. P. Naylor ( Ireencastle, Ind.
Charles E. Newlin Kokomo, Ind.
AV. W. Gorman ( freencastle, Ind.
"W. A. Noyes Terre Haute, Ind.
J. H. Oliver Indianapolis, Ind.
D. A. Owen Franklin, Ind. .
Wallace C. Palmer Colundjia City, Ind.
Alfred E. Phillips Lafayette, Ind.
E. R. Quick Brookville, Ind.
Ryland Ratlifl' Fairniount, Ind.
Thomas B. Redding New Castle, Ind.
I). C. lUdgley North Manchester, Ind
Herman B. Ritter Greencastle, Ind.
( ieorge L. Roberts (ireensburg, Ind.
W. B. Roberts Indianapolis, Ind.
John F. Schnaible Lafayette, Ind.
J. T. Scovell • Terre Haute, Ind.
Henry E. Seaton Cambridge, Mass.
W. P. Shannon (ireensburg, Ind.
(J. W. .Sloan Indianapolis, Ind.
W. J. Spillman • • Monmouth, Or.
Sidney T. Sterling Camden, Ind.
M. C. Stevens Lafayette, Ind.
A\'inthrop E. Stone Lafayette, Ind.
A. E. Swann Indianapolis, Ind.
Frank B. Taylor Ft. Wayne, Ind.
F. C. Test Washington, D. C.
:\[ason B. Thomas Crawfordsville, Ind.
AVm. M. Thrasher Irvington, Ind.
A. L. Treadwell Oxford, Ohio.
Joseph H. Tudor Baltimore, Md.
A. B. I'lrey Bloomington, Ind.
L. M. Underwood (greencastle, Ind.
T. C. Van Nuys Bloomington, Ind.
C. A. Waldo (Ireencastle, Ind.
L. I). Waterman Indianapolis, Ind.
F. M. Webster Wooster, Ohio.
M. L. Wells '■ Indianapolis, Ind.
James A. Wickersham Terre Haute, Ind.
J. R. Wiest Richmond, Ind.
H. W. Wiley Washington, J). C.
AVilliam S. Windle College Springs, Iowa.
William S. Wood Seymour, Ind.
A. Harvey Young Hanover, Ind.
Honorary member 1
Non-resident members .... 11
Active members 121
Total ' 133
FIELD :MEETINGS.
It was fitting that the first "Field Meeting" of the Indiana Academy of
Science should be held at Brookville. There the idea of such an organ-
ization originated. There the steps were taken, tlirough the Brookville
Society of Natural History, by which the scientific investigators of the
state were brought together at Indianapolis, December 29th, 1885, to
adopt articles of association and eflfect an organization.
This first Field Meeting began Thursday evening, May 20th, 1886. The
Academy was welcomed by Mr. D. W. McKee, President of the Brookville
Society of Xatural History. President D. S. Jordan responded to his greet-
ings. Dr. John €. Branner delivered an address on "The relations now
existing between geologists and the people." The next day was devoted
to visiting the localities of interest to 1 he persons attending. Luncheon
was served at "Templeton's ford," on the east fork of White Water river,
In the deep, clear water of the pool above the ford the baptism took place
and the first "Field Meeting" was declared by the president to be a success.'
Eecollections of that day — the first of united scientific work in Indiana,
a meeting more successful by far than had been dreamed of, and yet
which bespoke the fuller fruition to which the child of our minds should
come in later years — can never be eftaced.
At night a public meeting was held in the Town Hall. Dr. Jordan
delivered an address on "Charles Darwin." He also told " How to uo
fishing." Dr. Branner gave an account of methods of coral fishing. Dr.
P. S. Baker spoke of recent j>rogress in Toxicology. The number of per-
sons attending that meeting, and strange so say, several others, was thirty-
three.
The second " Field Meeting" of the Academy began its session at Wave-
land, Ind., May I'Jth, 1887. The meeting that evening was informal —
thoroughly so. The recollections of it will remain with those who partic-
ipated, and it would hardly be j ust to attempt to give an account of the
proceedings for the benefit of others.
The following morning the members were driven to "Shades of Death,"
a delightful spot adjacent to Sugar creek. There the day was spent
and luncheon served. FiVery one had heard of this beautiful spot, shaded,
well watered, with its canons, the clift's of which were topped with pine
and hemlock, and the walls draped with ferns and bedecked with mosses ;
10
its "blizzard's roost;" its lack of snakes, its peaceful dells and shady glens
—of all of which " the half has not been told,"
At night a pul)lic meeting was held at the M. E. church in Waveland,
when T)r. T. C. Mendenhall delivered an address upon " Weather Pre-
dictions." An informal discussion of the natural features of the region
visited was held. C. E. Barnes, J. M. Coulter. W. S. Blatchley and Stanley
Coulter spoke of its botanical interest, 0. P. .Jenkins of the fishes, B. W.
Evermann of the birds, A. W. Butler of the reptiles and amphibians, T. C.
Mendenhall of the southern limit of the white pine, P. S. Baker and W.
W. Byers of the geology.
The following day the members were taken to " Pine Hills," in the
valley of Indian creek, about a mile above the locality of the preceding
day's explorations. The features of the country were somewhat difierent
from those noticed the day before. A pleasant day was spent and lunch-
eon was served at the club house. At this meeting also there were thirty-
three persons.
The third " Field Meeting" was begun at Paoli, Orange county, May 2,
1888. The meeting was held in the public hall and was presided over by
Yice President O. P. Hay.
Prof. James E. Humphrey delivered an address entitled "Asa Uray."
Prof. J. 31. Coulter gave a lecture on "The Yellowstone Park."
The day following the persons present, thirty-three in number, drove
to Wyandotte cave, in Crawford county, going, in the way they traveled,
about forty miles. The evening and the early part of the night was spent
exploring the cave. The next day the party returned to Paoli, stopping
at Marengo .cave. The journey was a hard one, but it had its pleasures
and they were noteworthy. All will remember that meeting, some, in
some respects, unpleasantly, others as a season of unusual brightness in
their lives. The annals of that meeting are classic to Indiana's scientists.
How xmfortunate the chronicler cannot always write the Avhole truth!
At Greensburg, Ind., May 8th, 1889, the fourth "Field Meeting-" began.
The session was held at 8:30 o'clock P. M. in the rink. Vice President J.
L. Campbell presided. Dr. J. P. D. John delivered an illusti'ated lecture
on "Our Celestial Visitors."
The day following was pleasantly spent visiting the Upper and Lower
vSilurian exposures along Cobb's Fork of Sand creek. After luncheon,
which was kindly provided by the hospitable people of Greensburg, the
11
membei-s went to the Harris City quarries, thence returned to (ireens-
burg. In the evening another session was held in High School Hall. The
following persons spoke of some of the observations made during the day :
J. L. Campbell, on Topography.
G. K. Greene and W. P. Shannon, on Geology.
J. M. Coulter, D. H. Campbell and J. C. Arthur, on Botany.
Hon. Will Cumback then gave his impressions of the meeting.
Edward Hughes gave an account of tlie Amphibians noted.
A. W. Butler spoke of the reptiles.
O. P. Jenkins spoke of the fishes of Cobb's Fork, and was followed by
D. S. Jordan, who spoke of fishes also.
Rev. Mr. Torrence and J. P. D. .John made appropriate remarks, the
latter moving the adoption of a vote of thanks to the citizens of (Jreens-
burg for their hospitality, which was voted.
The roll showed twenty-seven persom^ present.
The next day the members divided, a part going to St. Paul and Waldron,
others to Cliffy creek. The former spent the day among the fossils of
these famous localities, while the latter fished or lounged beside the quiet
stream drinking inspiration and absorbing wisdom at the same time.
Over a small fire the champion of "vegetable beefsteak" might have
been seen, giving instruction in primitive culinary methods as applied to
his favorite food, while sitting about were several individuals who dis-
cussed the governor's jokes, the true name of the stream explored yester-
day, and the unaccommodating manner of the fishes who persisted in re-
fusing to be caught, as with rapid How alike of words and saliva they
watched the slowly growing mushroom pile. And thus we remember
Greensburg.
The next " Field -Meeting" was appointed for Greencastle, where the
meeting was called to order in Meharry Hall of DePauw University, at 8
o'clock P. M., May 8, 1890, by Prof. C. A. Waldo, acting president. Prof.
C. Leo Mees delivered an address on " Inertia with reference to electric-
ity." Dr. Daniel Kirkwood was elected the first honorary member of the
Academy. President J. P. D. John, of DePauw University, extended to
the members the courtesies of the university.
The following morning the members, according to previous arrange-
ment, went to " Fern," an interesting spot, where the day was pleasantly
spent. In the evening the party returned to Greencastle.
!•>
At 8 o'clock P. M. the Academy convened in Meharry Hall with ex-
President John in the chair.
J. C. Arthur presented " Rome observations on parasitic plants taken at
' Fern.' "
C. R. Dryer gave an account of the "Surface < ieology of Putnam
county." C. W. Hargitt spoke on " Some observations on Economic Fa\-
tomology." Stanley Coulter gave some notes on the day's work. D. H.
Campbell spoke of the ferns at " Fern." C. A. Waldo referred to the pro-
. posed meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence at Indianapolis in August next. A vote of appreciation of the kind-
ness and courtesy shown the members of the Academy by the citizens of
Greencastle and T'niversity authorities was passed. O. P. Jenkins, being
called upon, spoke concerning the influence of associations such as the
Indiana Academy of Science upon the individual worker. After discuss-
ing plans for welcoming and entertaining the American Association the
Academy adjourned.
According to appointment, the sixth " Field Meeting" was convened at
the Arlington Hotel, Lake Maxinkuckee, May 14, 1^591, at 8 o'clock P. M.
President Hay occupied the chair. Dr. P. S. Baker delivered an address
upon "The Spirit of Scientific Work," for which the thanks of the Acad-
emy were tendered him. The Executive Committee was instructed to
prepare an abstract of the new law for the protection of birds, and to
have a copy of the same mailed to each newspaper in the state. It was
recommended that special attention be called to the fact that the English
sparrow is not protected by law. J. T. Scovell spoke of the desirability of
an effort being made to determine the height of Mt. Orizaba, Mexico, and
of the advantages to be derived from such work being undertaken by
running a line of levels from some determined point. to the summit and
definitely fixing each thousand foot mark as a reference point for biologi-
cal investigations. The Academy voted approval of the plan as presented
and agreed to assist in any way in its power should such plan be under-
taken.
The next day was spent in exploring the lake and its shores, and was
very much enjoyed. Boating, fishing, turtle hunting and collecting in
many lines represented the various ways in which the members were
employed.
In the evening the Academy met again at the Arlington Hotel. A
13
committee consisting of J. M. Coulter, P. S. Baker, A. J. Woolman, A. P.
Carman and A. W. Butler was appointed to consider the relation that
should be sustained by teachers in the High Schools to the Academy of
Science. The natural characters of the region about Lake Maxinkuckee
were then discussed until the close of the session.
Richmond was the place chosen for the "Field Meeting" of 1892. The
kind and urgent invitation of the representatives of Earlham College
made each one feel an assured welcome to Richmond and to Earlham.
On the morning of May 12th the members met at the Arlington Hotel,
and under the guidance of Professors Dennis and Moore proceeded to
Thistlethwaite's Falls, above the city. The morning was agreeably spent
along the several outcrops of the fossiliferous limestone. Before noon
the party reached the college grounds. After examining the collections,
dinner was served in the dormitory. In the afternoon, by the kindness
of the people of Richmond, the members were driven in carriages to Elk-
horn Falls, five miles down the Whitewater river. Upon their return
they were driven about the city and given an opportunity to see its
beauties, comforts and advantages.
Thursday evening the Academy met in Lindley Hall, Earlham College.
President J. L. Campbell occupied the chair. J. M. Coulter spoke briefly
of the objects and plan of the Academy. Dr. Alfred Springer then de-
livered an address upon "The Cell and Its Functions."
The thanks of the Academy were tendered Dr. Springer for his address.
The next morning the members visited the limestone outcrops below
the city, going thence to the college where they again partook of dinner.
Those who could remain spent the remainder of the day in the libraries,
museums and laboratories All regretted when leaving time came. The
meeting was too short in time but was full of pleasures for which all
will hold the Richmond friends in grateful remembrance.
AUTHOR LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Papers Presented to the Academy
I''R()M 188-') TO 1801 IXCLU.SIVE.
.{I)tiri riiitiiiiix I xplniiial (lit /In pKijr fuUoiriiKj l/ii //.v/.
Adams, B. F.
'So. [See Van Nuys, T. C]
AXDERSOX, V. C.
'89. Town geology — what it is and what it might be.
Arthuk, J. C.
'87. Life history of the plum leaf fungus.
'S"». Variation of plants from unripe seeds.
'ilO. A remarkable oscillating movement of protoplasm in a Mucor.
'!>0. Accelerating germination by previous immersion of the seed in
hot water.
'91. Relation of available enzym in the seed to the growth of the jilant.
'91. The potato tuber as a means of transmitting energy.
Bakek, p. .S.
'85. Indiana entomology.
'8(5. The new alkaloid, cocaine. [Not published.]
'89. Vapor densities of the volatile metalic " Halids." [Am. C. .T., XI,
134.]
'89. Oxidation by means of the fixed alkaline hydrates. [Not pub.]
'89. Action of chloroform on aluminum chloride. [Not published.]
'89. The " Perkins Synthesis." [Not published.]
'91. A copper ammonium oxj'^de. [Not published.]
Barnes, C. K.
'86. Collecting mosses. [Not published.]
PiKACHLER, C. S.
'91. The relation of the Keokuk groups of Montgomery county with
the typical locality. [Am. G., Aug. '92. A part of paper en-
titled " Keokuk group of the Mississippi valley."]
'91. Comments on the description of species. [Not published.]
BicxEV, A. J.
'91. Preliminary notes on the geology of Dearborn county, Ind. [Pr.
^^]
'91. Notes on Klaps fulvus. [Pr. \'.]
15
Blatciilev, W. S.
'88. Lists of the plants of Monroe county, Ind. [Not published.]
'89. Some rare batrachians. [Not published.]
'89. The compositai' of Vigo county, Ind. [Not published.]
'89, On some plants new to the state list. [Not published.]
'90. The butterflies of Indiana. [17th Keport on the Geol. and Natural
History of Indiana.]
'90. The batrachians and reptiles of Vigo county, Ind. [.1. of C. S. of
X. H., ApL, '91, p. 22.]
. 'SO. Acridid;t> of Vigo county, Ind. [C. E. XXIII, '91, pp. 74, 98; al.<o
I. F., May 16, "91, under the title, " Some facts about grasshop-
pers.
''.»0. On a bird new to the state fauna. [Not published.]
'HO. ( )n ( 'nicus discolor as an insect trap. [C. E. XXIV, "92, November.]
'ill. The Gryllid;.' of Indiana. [Pr. V.]
'91. Entomologizing in Mexico. [E. N. Ill, "92, pp. Ill, 131.]
"91. Notes on Indiana Acridida-. Description of one new species. [C.
E. XXIV, -92, p. 28.]
Bcji.i.EY, H. L.
'88. A study of the sub-epidermal rusts of grasses and sedges. [B. G.
'89, p. 13! I.]
'90. Notes on a new Puccinea'. [Am. :\I. M. .!., X, pp. 1(;8-180.]
''.»0. On the manufacture of jilant infusions for the culture of bacteria.
[Not published.]
Bol.I.MAX, C. H.
'86. Notes on the Acrididiie of Bloomington, Ind., with descriptions of
four new species. [Xot published.]
'Sf). New North American myriapods, chiefly from Bloomington, Ind.
[Not published.]
'88. The sunfishes. [Not published.]
'88. The myriapods of Indiana. [Not published.]
Bkaxneu, J. C.
"86. An Indiana earthcjuake. [Not published.]
'86. The limit of the drift in Kentucky and Indiana. [Not published.]
'86. The deep well at Bloomington, Ind. [Not published.]
'87. A sketch of the geology of Arkansas. [Vol. I, (xeological Survey
of Arkansas, '89.]
'87. The meanderings of the Arkansas river below Little Kock. [To
be published in '93. Miscellaneous papers by ( ieol. Surv. of
Arkansas.]
'88. Observations upon the erosion of the hydrographic basin of the
Arkansas river above Little Rock. [Aa above.]
'88. The fauna of Fernando de Noronha. [Am. N., Oct., '88, pp. 861-
171.]
"Sit, The training of a geologist. (Presidential address.) [Am. G.
Mar., '90, pp. 147-160.]
1()
BllANNEK, J. C. AND J. H. MeANS.
'89. Preliminary location of a parting in the sub-carboniferous of Mon-
roe county, Ind. [Not published.]
Braxnon, M. a.
'89. Some Indiana mildews. [Not published.]
Brown, R. T.
'85. Indiana geology.
Brown, W. Y.
'87. [See O. P. Jenkins.]
'88. Effect on personal equation of single and double-line reticules.
'88. [See O. P. Jenkins.]
'91. The sections of the anchor ring. [Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 6,
'92, Xo. 6.]
Bryan, Wm.
'88. Investigations in physiological time.
'88. Outline of work in physiological psychology.
'89. Investigations on relation between the intensity of stimulus and
reaction time.
'90. Researches on the tactual perception of distance.
'90. Description of a new a»sthesiometer.
'90. Researches on reaction time.
Butler, A. W.
'85. The past and present of Indiana ornithology. [Not pub.]
'86. Notes on the house building habit of the rauskrat. [Not pub.]
'80. Notes on Indiana ornithology. [Not pub.]
'87. Some rare Indian* birds. [O. & 0., Mar., '88.]
. '87. Suggestions concerning a law for the protection of birds. [Printed
by the Academy for circulation.]
'87. Notes on some Indiana reptiles and amphibians. [Not pub.]
'88. On a mammal new to Indiana. [J. C. S. of N. H., Jan., '89, p. 214.]
'88. Some notes on Indiana reptiles. [J. C. S. of N. H., Oct., '87, pp.
147-8.]
'88 Observations on the destruction of birds by storms on Lake Mich-
igan. [Not pub.]
'89. Observations on the destruction of birds by storms. [Not pub.]
'89. The proposed meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science at Indianai^olis. [Not pub.]
'89. Some notes on Indiana reptiles and batrachians. [J. C. S. of N. H.,
'92, pp. 169-179.]
'89. The occurrence of the badger in Indiana. [Not pub.]
v'90. Notes on Indiana reptiles. [J. C. S. of N. H., '92, pp. 169-179.] •
'90. Observations on the habits of Synaptomys cooperii. [Not pub.]
'90. [See B. AV. Everman. Not pub.]
'90. The range of the evening grosbeak in the winter of 1889-90. [Auk.
IX, pp. 238-247.]
17
'90. Carolina parakeet in Indiana. [Auk. IX, pji. 49-o6.]
'91. On a deposit of vertebrate fossils in Colorado. [Not pub.]
'!)1. On Indiana shrews. [Pr. V.]
'91. Notes on Indiana birds. [Pr. V.]
I'.VMPUELL, D. H.
'88 On the value of the sexual organ as a standard of classification in
plants. ^
'88. Notes on the collecting and preserving of material for botanical
instruction.
'89. Method of embedding and staining delicate vegetable tissues.
'89. Germination of the macrospores of Isoetes.
'90. Compai'ative structure of the roots of Osniunda and Botrychium.
'90. Notes on the prothallium of the Osmundacea'.
Campbell, J. L.
'8(5. The geodetic survey in Indiana.
'87. The reversal of the electric current in the Holtz induction ma-
chine.
'88. The Collett glacial river.
'89. Dangers of the electric current.
'91. The Kankakee and pure water for northwestern Indiana and Chi-
cago. [Pr. v.]
'91. Science and the Columbian Exposition, [Pr. V.]
1'ampbell, J. T.
'91. Topographical evidence of a great and sudden diminution of the
ancient water supply of the Wabash river. [Not pub.]
'91. Source of supply to medial moraines probably from the bottom of
the glacial channel. [Not pub.]
Carmax, a. p.
'89. Magnetic permeability of nickel at low temperatures.
'90. Transformer tests.
'90. Note on the magnetic permeability of an impure nickel at low
temperature.
'91. Heating of a dielectric in a condenser. Preliminary note.
Clarke, W. B.
'89. Cremation. [N. A. .T. of H. 3d Series, Y, p. 154.]
'90. Hypnotism. [Report Ind. Board of Health, '90, p. 144.]
Conner, J. B.
'85. Statistical investigations in Indiana.
Coulter, J. M.
'85. Progress of botanical work in Indiana.
'86. Origin of the Indiana flora. [Ind. Geol. Report, 1885-86, pp. 253-
282.]
'87. Evolution in the vegetable kingdom, (Presidential Address.) [Am.
N., 1888, pp, 322-335.]
'87. Stomata of Tillandsia usneoides. [Not pub.]
9
18
'S8. Geographical distribution of I'mbellifers. [Coulter and Rose Ke-
vision X. Amer. TJmb., pp. .VS.]
'88. The future of systematic botany. [Not pub.]
'88. Peculiarities of the Indiana flora. [Not pub.]
'89. 8tone characters of Xysi^a. [!'>. (J. XV., 'M).]
'89. "Snake cactus." [Not pub.]
'89. The National Herbarium. [Not pub.]
'89. Mycorhiza and Epiphegus. [Not pub.]
'89. Distribution of Cornus. [P. A. A. A. S. Indianapolis meeting.]
'90. Biological surveys. [Not pub.]
'90. The Hora of Texas. [Cont. Nat. Herb., Vol. II.]
'91. Biological surveys. [Not pub.]
CoiTLTER, Stanley.
'86. The chlorophyll bands of Spirogyra. [B. {}.. Nil, pp. 153-157.]
'87. Histology of the foliage leaf of Taxodiuni distichum. [B. G., NIA',
pp. 76-Sl and XIY, pp. 101-107.]
'88. Amoeba - a query. [Not pub.]
'88. Strengthening cells and resin ducts in Coniferee.
'89. Determination of lower plant forms. [Not pub.]
'89. Porest trees of Indiana.
'90. Preliminary notes on genus Polygonum. [Not yet pub.]
'90. Aberrant fruit of .luglans nigra. [Not yet pub.]
'90. \'alue of minute anatomy in plant classification. [Not pub.]
'91. I'nused forest resources. [Trans. Ind. Hort. Soc, 1891, pp. 1.57-
192.]
'91. Distribution of cei'tain forest trees. [As above.]
'91. Cleistogamy in Polygonum. [B. G., XVII, pp. 91-92.]
Davis, B. M.
'90. [See Jordan, D. S.]
Davi.s, Sherman.
'91. Results of estimations of chlorini' in mineral waters by Volhardt's
method. [Pr. W]
Dennis, D. AY.
'86. The bearing of the Lebanon beds on evolution.
'87. The east-west diameter of the silurian island about Cincinnati.
'87. The transition of Orthisoccidentalis, Hall, into Orthis sinuata, Hall.
'91. Some observations on photomicrography.
Dkesslar, F. B.
'88. The American mackerels.
Drew, Frank M.
'89. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission in Missouri.
Dryer, C. R.
'86. The surface geology of the Wabash-P^rie divide. [16th Ind. State
Geo. Rep., p. 105, et seq.]
'87. The kames of Allen county, Indiana. [As above.]
U)
'89. The moraines of the Maumee glacier. [17th Ind. State Geo. Kep.]
'89. Observations on the lakes of Indiana. [As above.]
'89. The glacial geology of the Irondequoit glacier. [Am. (i., Apl., 1890.]
EiGKNMAXx, Carl H.
'88. Origin of the egg membrane in teleostean fishes. [Bulletin of the
Museum of Comp. Zool. at Harvard College, XIX, p. 129-154.]
'88. A Cyprinodon from Hot Springs in southern Xevada. [P. C. A. S.,
2d Series, I, p. 270.]
'91. The development of the viviparous fii^hes of California. [In press.]
'91. Recent additions to the ichthyological fauna of California. [A, M.
Y. A. S., 1892, and Proc. V. S. Xat. Mus., '92, pp. 123-178, and
Pr. v.]
'91. The continuity of the germ plasm in vertebrates. [J. of M., V,
pp. 481-492, an<l Pr. V.]
'91. Biological stations. [San Francisco Chronicle, Xov. :>(), 1890.]
'91. The eyes of blind fishes. [Zoe I, pp. 6o-72, and Proc. U. S. Xat.
M., 1892, pp. lo9-l()2, and Pr. V.]
'91. On the presence of an operculum in the Aspredinid;c. [Am. X.
XXVI, p. 71.]
EiGEXAfAxx, Carl H., and Rosa S.
'88. Revision of the Xematognathi of South America. [Occasional
Papers of the Cal. Acad, of Sci., I, pp. 1-508.]
'88. The Erythrinimc. [P. C. A. S., 2d Series, II, pp. 100-1 Ki.]
'88. The edentulous Curimatinie. [A. X. Y. A. S., IV, pp. 1-32.]
EiGENMAxx, Carl II., and R. L. GitEKx.
'91. The relation of nucleoplasm to cytoplasm in the segmenting egg.
EicEXMAXx, Carl H., and Jexxie Hornuxg.
'86. Review of American Chaetodontidee. [A. X. Y. A. S., IV, pp. 1-18.]
EiGEXMAXx, Carl H., and Elizabeth G. Hlghes.
'86. Review of Diplodus and Lagodon. [Proc. U. S. Xational ^luseum,
1887, pp. 65-74.]
EvAx.s, S. G.
'90. Notes on distribution and habits of Argynnis diana. [Xot pub.]
EvAxs, Walter PI.
'87. Lichens of Indiana.
'88. The spines of Cactacea'.
'91. The cactus flora of the Southwest.
EVERMAXX, B. W.
'86. The work of the A. O. U. committee on bird migration. [Xot pub.]
'86. Notes on birds observed in Carroll county, Indiana. [Auk. V.]
'87. The fishes of Carroll county, Indiana. [Pr. V. S. X. M., '88.]
'87. The occurrence of the star-nosed mole in Indiana. [Am. N.]
'88. The occurrence in Indiana of the wood ibis. [Am. X.]
'88. Additions to the fish fauna of Vigo county, Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'88. [See .Jenkins, O. P.]
20
'S8. [See Jenkins, O. 1'.]
'89. Description of a new species of Rhinoptera from the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. [Pr. T^ S. N. M., '91, pp. 121-105.]
'90. Some notes on Indiana birds. [Not pub.]
'90. [See Jenkins, O. P.]
'90. Audubon's old mill at Henderson, Ky. [Not pub.]
EvERMANN, B. W., and Amo.s W. Bi tlkr.
'90. Notes on Indiana mammals. [Not i)ub.]
EvERMANN," B. W., and O. P. Jenkixs.
•'90. Fishes of the Wabash basin. [Not pub.]
Feslak, Bert. '
'88. [See Dresslar, F. B.]
I-'lSHER, E. M.
'89. Some structures in Epiphegus. [Not pub.]
'90. Parasitic fungi of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'91. Preliminary notes on the genus Hoffmanscggia. [Cont. Nat'l
Herb, I, pp. 143-150.]
Gilbert, C. PI.
'88. Plan of work of the " Albatross" on the coast of Lower California.
[Not pub.]
'89. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission steamer " Albatross "
in the Pacific ocean. [Not pub.]
'\)0. The identification of ghost fishes. [Not pub.]
'90. The deep water fishes of the Pacific. [Not pub.]
Glick, V. F.
'89. Some unusual forms of lime carbonate deposition. [Not pub.]
'90. Notes on some Actinia. [Not pub.]
Golden, Miss Katiierine E.
'90. Weight of the seed in relation to production. [Ag. S., V, pp.
117-122.]
'91. Diseases of the sugar beet root. [B. I. E. S., Ill, pp. 54-62, and
Pr. v.]
Goss, W. F. M.
'90. A brief description of the new steam engineering laboratory at
Purdue University. [P^ngineering Journal, Dec, '91, p. 549;
also. Mechanics, Dec, '91, p. 291.]
Gray, Thos.
'88. Sea bottom temperatures.
'88. A mantel piece seismoscope.
'89. Apparatus for the determination of power consumption in friction
and the cutting of metals.
'89. Thomson's portable magnetostatic electrical measuring instru-
ments of long range.
'89. On the determination of the elasticity constants of materials by
the deflection method.
•21
'90. Exact and approximate formulte for calculating the force at any
point in the plane of a circular circuit conveying an electric
current.
'90. Some data as to the resistance to cutting of metals.
'90. An apparatus for determining strength of electric currents in ab-
solute measure.
'90. Specimens of diagrams obtained in testing iron and steel.
'90. The relative magnetic resistance of air and iron.
'90. On the solution of the equation : du= ._,_" ^.,-
Gray, Tho8., and C. Leo Mees.
'89. Preliminary report on the changes. in density of wire in stretching.
Green, E. L.
'89. The uses of infinity and zero in algebra.
'91. Some suggested changes in notation.
'91. [See Eigenmann, C. H.]
Har(;itt, C. W.
'87. Some curious monstrosities in egg formation. [Am. X. XXII, p.
535.]
'87. Xotes on Scajihiopus holbrookii. [Xot pub.]
'88. Evidencesof shallow water deposition of silurian rocks. [Xot pub.]
'88. Occurrence of Agkistrodon contortrix in Dearborn county, Indiana.
[Not pub.]
'88. Some strange cases of color variation in animals. [Am. X. XXIII,
p. 449.]
'89. Notes upon the economic phases of entomology and ornithology.
[Not pub.]
'89. Some habits of the cray fish. [Am. M. M. .7., XI, p., 179.]
'89. Some remarkable fioral variations. [B. G., XIV, p., 179.]
'90. Food habits of the blue jay. [Not pub.]
'90. Notes on Hydra fusca. [Xot pub.]
Hathaway, A. S.
'91. A graphical solution for eiiuations of liigher degree, both for real
and imaginary roots. [Vr. V.]
'91. On some theorems of integrations in quaternions. [Pr. V.]
'91. A note on the early history of potential functions. [Pr. V.]
Hay, 0. p.
'85. The present condition of our knowledge of Indiana herpetology.
'86. A curious habit of the red-headed woodpecker. [Auk., Apl., '87.]
'86. The higher classification of the amphibia. [Xot pub.]
'86. Some reptiles and amphibians that appear to be rare in Indiana.
[Not pub.]
'86. Some reptiles and amphibians that are to be looked for in Indiana.
'86. Notes on the winter habits of Amblystoma tigrinum and A. micro-
stoma. [Am. N., 1890.]
'8(). The manner of deposit of the glacial drift, and the formation of
lakes. [Am. J. 8., 1,S87.]
'87. Notes on some fossil bones found in Indiana. [Not pub.]
'87. Observations on the Amphiuma. [Am. N., 1890.]
'87. Some additions to the list of Indiana reptiles. [Not pub.]
'8S. On the skull of the larva of Amphiuma means. [Am. N., 1890.]
'88. On the hyobranchial apparatus of Amblystoma microstomum.
[Not pub.]
'88. Further notes on the habits of some Amblystouias. [Am. N., 1890.]
'89. The breeding habits and larval stages of Amblystoma microsto-
mum. [Am. N., 1890,]
'89. Some points in the anatomy of Amphiuma. [Am. N. 1890.],
'89. Aquatic respiration of the Amblystomas. [Am. N., 1890.]
'89. The life historj' of Chorophilus triseriatus.
'89. On certain species of the genus Chorophilus.
'91. The present state of the theory of organic evolution (President's
address.) [Present vol.]
'91. On Leconte's terrapins, Emys concinna and E. floridana.
'91. The eggs and young of certain snakes. [Pr. Y.]
'91. Observations on the turtles of the genus 3fal6chlemys. [Pr. V.]
'91. Our present knowledge concerning the green triton. [Pr. \.]
'91. The proper systematic name of the prairie rattlesnake.
Hay, O. p. and W. P. Hav.
'88. Contributions to the knowledge of the genus Branchipus. The
production of the larv;i' of P. vernalis. [Am. N., 1889. ]
'88. Description cf a supposed new species of Branchipus found in In-
diana. [Am. X., 1889.]
Hav, W. p.
'91. The blind cray fishes of Indiana.
'91. Eemarks on the crustaceans of Indiana. [Pr. \.~\
Hessler, Robert.
'88. [See Van Nuys. T. C] [Not pub.]
'88. Railroad migrants among Indiana plants. [I. F., NXIII, p. 1.]
HioiiT, R. F.
'8(). On the Thysanura.
HoLZMAN, C. L.
'91. Development of the sporangium and apical growth of the stem of
Botrichium virginianum. [B. G., NVIt, p. 214.]
Hooi'Ei:, AV. DkM.
'89. Incandescent gas lighting.
HoRMXG, Miss .Texxie.
'86. [See Eigenmann, C. H.]
HriiHAKD, G. C.
'8G. Additions to the flora of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'S7. List of butterflies of .Tefferson county, Ind, [Not pub.]
'S7. Additions to the flora of Indiana. [Not pub.]
'88. List of one hundred species of Jefterson county birds. [Not pub.]
'88. List of the solitary wasps of Jefterson county. [Not pub.]
'90. Geophila in .lefterson county, Ind. [Not pub.]
'91. .Jefferson county cystidians. [Pr. V.]
'9L Hudson river fossils of Jefferson county, Ind. [Pr. A^.]
'91. The upper limit of the lower silurian at Madison, Ind. [Pr. V.]
'91. A new microtome. [Pr. V.]
HrsTox, H. A.
'90. Oxydation of phosphoric acid. [Xot pub.]
'90. Albuminoid nitrogen in Indiana feedini: material. [ 1>. I. E. S.,
XXXVIL]
'91. The sugar Ijeet in Indiana. [B. I. E. S., XXXIV.]
'91. Forms of nitrogen for wheat. [B. L E. S., XXXVI and XLL]
'91. Laboratory and field work on the phosphate of alumina. [liuUe-
tin 28, Chem. Division. F. S. Dept. of Ag., p. 170.]
'91. Recent methods for the determination of phosphoric acid. [Bul-
letin 81, Chem. Div. F. S. Dept. of Ag.. pp. 107-179.]
Jen-kins, 0. P.
'85. Account of the work done in invertebi'ate zoology in Indiana.
'86. The fishes of the Wabash and some of its tributaries. [Not pub.]
'87. Notes on some southern Indiana fishes. [Not pub.]
'89. The state of the crater of Kilauea in August, 1.S89. [Not pub.]
"89. Preliminary note on the fishes of Sandwich Islands. [Not pub.]
'89. Fishes of Putnam county. [Not pub.]
'89. Notes on some fishes from the west coast of Africa, collected by
Carl Stecklemann. [Not pub.]
'90. Sailor spiders on Lake INIaxinkuckee. [Not pub.]
'90. Chsetodontida' of the Sandwich Islands. [Not pub.]
'90. [See Evermann, AV. B.]
'90. Notes on structure of mut^cle cells in salamanders. [Not pub.]
Je.nkins, O. p. and W. A'. Biiowx.
'87. Location of Eel river falls. [Not pub.]
'S8. The determination of the least discernible interval between
sounds. [Not pub.]
Jexkins, O. p. and B. AV. EvEK.^[.\XN.
'88. The fishes of the bay of Guaymas, including nineteen new species.
Pr. V. S. N. M., '88, pp. 137-158.
'88. Some notes on the natural history of (juaymas, Mexico. [Not pub.]
'90. Contribution to the distribution of the fishes of the west coast of
North America. [Pr. F. S. N. M., '91, pp. 121-l(i5.]
Jenks, Jeremiah AV.
'89. The eft'ects of trusts.
John, J. P. D.
'88. Religion and the law of continuity. (Presidential address.)
[Methodist Review, X(.v. 'S9, pp. 870-887.]
2i
JOEDAX, D. S.
'85. Sketch of ('. >S. Kafinesque. [Pop. Sci. Monthly.]
'85. Account of the work done for ichthyology in Indiana.
'8(5. The relation of latitude to the number of vertebra' in fishes. [Pr.
U. S. N. M., 1891, pp. 107 et seq.]
'86, The dispersion of fresh-water fishes. (Presidential address.)
[Science Sketches, '88. A. C. McClurg & Co.]
'87. Blind fishes and natural selection. [Not pub.]
'87. The Isthmus of Panama as a barrier to marine fauna. [I'r. i'. S.
N. M., 1885, p. 394.]
'87. The ori,o;ln of genera. [Not pub.]
'88. The relation of systematic zoology to museum administration.
[Not pub.]
'88. Explorations of the V. S. Fish Commission in \'ir«rinia and North
Carolina. [Bulletin U. S. Fish Com. for 1889.]
'88. Analogy between river faun;o and island faunic [Not pub.]
'88. The ancestry of the blind fishes. [Not pub.]
'89. Fishes of the Yellowstone Park. [Bulletin V. S. Fish Comm. for
1890.]
'89. The top of the Matterhorn. [Not pub.]
'89. Explorations of the U. S. Fish Commission in Colorado and I'tah.
[Bulletin V. S. Fish Comm. for 1890.]
'90. The death of salmon after spawning. [Letter to Forest and Stream,
1892.]
'iiO. The fishes of the upper Columbia and the Shoshone Falls. [Not
pub.]
'90. Relation of the number of vertebra' in fishes to the temperature
of water. [Pr. V. S. N. M., 1891, pp. 107 et seq.]
'90. The colors of letters. [P. S. M., July, 1891.]
Jordan, D. S. and B. M. Davis.
'90. Eels of America and Europe. [Report U. S. Fish Comm., 1892.]
Karstkn, Gustaf.
'90. The colors of sounds.
Kellerman, W. a.
'91. Notes on a Kansas species of l)uckeye. [Not pub.]
'91. Photographing certain natural objects without a camera. [.I. C.
S. of N. H., 1892, pp. 53-54.]
Kellicott, D. S.
'91. The Aegeria of central Ohio. [C. E., NNIV, p. 39.]
KiNOSLEY, J. S.
'87. The origin of arthropods.
'88. The invertebrate homologues of the infundibulum and pineal eye.
'88. Segmentation of the arthropod egg.
'88. The Myriapoda, a heterogeneous group. [Am. N., 1889.]
Kirk WOOD, Da.mel.
'85. Astronomical studv in Indiana.
'SG. The zone of minor planets. [Author's monograph on the aster-
oids.]
KiRSCH, p. H.
'88. The American star-gazers — T'rauoscopidae. [Proi-. of Acad, of
Nat. Sci. of Phil'a., 1S89, pp. 258-265.]
Lackey, B. A.
'90. Freezing process of excavation.
LOTZ, DUMONT.
'90. [See Stone, W. E.]
Lyons, Robeet E.
'88. [See Van Nuys. T. C]
'90. [See Van Nuys, T. C]
'90. An improved chemical test for blood in urine.
'V)0. An apparatus for determination of water in oils and fats.
'91. [See Van Nuys, T. C]
McBkide, R. Wes.
'9L Some observations on Indiana birds. [Pr. V.]
McDouGAL, D. T.
'89. The plants of Putnam county.
'90. Aberrant forms of Juglans nigra— structural changes.
'9L Plant zones of Arizona. [Pr. V.]
McNeill, Jerome.
'86. A remarkable case of longevity in the longicorn beetle, Eburia
quadrigeminata, Say.
'SO. The teaching of entomology in the high schools.
'86. Descriptions of four new species of myriapods from the United
States.
'90. A list of the ( )rthoptera of Illinois, with descriptions of new species
and observations on the songs and habits of little known species.
MartixV, G. W.
'91. Organogeny of Aster and Solidago. [B. G., XVII, No. 11, and Am.
N., XXVI, No. 31L]
Martin, Miss Lillie J.
'86. Outline of a course in science study based on evolution.
'87. A chemical study of Juglans nigra.
'87. The value of organized work in plant chemistry.
Means, J. H.
'86. [See Branner, J. C.]
Meek, S. E.
'86. Elegatis pinnulatis at the east end of Long Island Sound.
Mees, C. Leo.
'88. Notes of the comparative value of several photometric methods.
'88. Some curious phenomena in a four-plate Toeppler-IIoltz machine.
'88. Simple device for measuring the coefficient of expansion of solids.
'89. [See Gray, Thos.]
2(i
'89. The use of two mirrors for the determination of the coefficient of
expansion in solids.
'89. Cause of periodicity in thermometers as discussed by I'rof. W. A.
liodgers.
'90. Description of a powerful electro-magnet with preliminary deter-
mination of its magnetic field.
'90. Continuation of experiments in the change of density of metala
under stress.
Mkndeniiall, T. C.
'86. Recent progress in seismology.
'88. Recent researches in atmospheric electricity. [Popular Address.]
'90. The work of the I'nited States Coast and < ieodetic Survey. [Presi-
dent's Address.]
^Ikyxcke, O. M.
'87. The late drouth and its effect on vegetation.
'87. Companion plants.
'87. Xoles on the whitespored agarics of Franklin county, Ind.
MiKELS, Mrs. Rosa Reijdixi;.
'91. Preliminary paper on the flora of Henry county, Ind. [Not yet pub.]
MOOKE, D. 1\.
'85. Our knowledge of Indiana conchology.
3IooRE, Joseph.
'89. On the remains of a giant beaver found near AVinchester, Indiana.
[Not pub.]
'90. A recent find of musk ox remains in Indiana. [Not pub.]
'91. Variations in the dynamical conditions during the deposit of the
rock beds at Richmond, Ind. [Not pub.]
Mooke, J. E , and E. M. Linglev.
'91. Hysteresis curves for mitis and other cast irons.
MOKCJAX, JOKX.
'90. Circulation of sap.
^looEEHEAi), Warren K.
'91. Recent archaeological discoveries in southern Ohio.
'91. Methods observed in archfeological research.
MoTTiER, David ]\I.
'90. Notes on the apical growth of liverworts. [B. G., M&y, 1891.]
'90. Notes on the germination of spores of Notothylas.
'91. Notes on the development of the archegonium and fertilization in
Tsuga canadensis and Pinua sylvestris. [B. G., ^lay, 1S92, and
Pr. v.]
NAVI...R, J. P.
'85. The progress of physics in 1 ndiana.
'8S. A new electrometer.
'!)0. A set of resistance coils and AVheatstone's bridge.
'91. An adjustment for the control magnet on a mirror galvanometer.
'91. A combined Wheatstone's bridge and potentiometer.
Xef, J. r.
'87. On carboxylated derivatives of ben/.oquinone. [.lourn. Loud.
Chem. Soc, 1888, p. 428.]
'87. On chloranil. [B. d. c. G., 1887, p. 2027.]
'88. The constitution of the anilic acids. [Am. C. J., 18S!t, p. 17.]
'88. On tautomeric compounds. [Am. C. J., 1S89, p. 1.]
New UN, C. E.
'90. Some new crustacean fossils.
Ne\V80M, J. F.
'90. A review of the Niagara group in Bartholomew county, Ind.
'90. Shelby county " Earthquake.''
NOYES, W. A.
'87. Beta-nitro-para-toluic acid. [Am. C. .1., N, p. 472.]
'88. On the atomic weight of oxygen. [Am. C. J., XI, p. 1-35.]
'89. Atomic weight of oxygen. [Am. C. J., XII, p. 441.]
'90. Detection and estimation of titanium. [.T. of A. C, V, p. 39.]
'91. Di-benzyl carbinamine. [Am. C. .1., XIV, p. 22."), and I'r. N.]
'91. The character of well-waters in a thickly populated area. [Pr. Y.]
NoYES, W. A., and Chas. Walker.
'80. On the oxidation of paraxylene-sulphamide by potassium ferri-
cyanide. [Am. C. J., IX, p. 9.3.]
NoYE.s, W. A., and AY. B. Wiley.
'88. On para-nitro-ortho-sulphamine-benzoic acid. [Am. C. J., XI,
p. 161.]
O^ijoii.x, H. L.
'86. Osphradium in Crepidula. [Am. :M. M., Apl., 18S7, p. (i.]
Owen, D. A.
'87. A geological section of .lohnson county, Ind.
'91. Strange development of stomata upon Carya alba caused by phyl-
loxera. [Pr. v.]
'91. Some observations upon Heloderma suspecta. [Pr. \'.]
OWEX, KiCITARL).
'8.3. Sketch of the work accomplished for natural and jihysical science
in Indiana.
Palmer, Chase.
'89. On sulphophenyl-propionic acid.
Phillips, A. E.
'89. The portable water supply of the City of New York.
Phinxey, a. J.
'86. Natural gas and petroleum.
•28
'86. Loantharia rugosa.
Tkodlk, J. B.
'88. [See Waters, E. G.]
PoTTKu, Theodore.
'91. The contest against infection. [Cincinnati J.ancet-CUinic, August
0, '92.]
ill UK, E. E.
'85. The progress of the study of mammalogy in Indiana.
'86. Our blind mice.
Ra(;.vx, W. H.
'85. Meteorology in Indiana.
Redding, T. B.
'87. Man an evolution — biological proofs. [Souvenir of Western
Writers' Asso., 1890, pp. 173-184, and Pulpit and Tew.]
'91. The prehistoric earthworks of Henry county, Ind. [New Castle
Courier, Dec. 20, '89, and Pr. Y.]
Rett(;er, Louis.
'89. [See Drew, Frank M.]
'89. Morphology of the siphonophores. [Not pub.]
Ho,sE, .1. X.
'86. The mildews of Indiana. [B. G., XI, pp. 60-63.]
'87. Characters in Vmbellifer;e. [B. G., XII, pp. 237-243, and Coulter
and Rose's Revision of Umbellifera\"pp. 9-lG.]
'90. Distribution of T'mbellifer;e in Xorth America. [Not yet pub.]
'90. Plants collected by Dr. Palmer in Arizona in 1890. [Cont. fr. IT.
S. Xat'l Herb., I, pp. 117-127.]
ScjlNAlBLE, JOIIX r.
'89. Soap analysis. [J. of A. C, IV, p. l.")7.]
SCOVELL, J. T.
'85. Geographical studies in Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'86. The geology of ^'igo county, Ind. [Not pub.]
'S(). The Xiagara river. [Xot pub.]
'87. Erosion in Indiana. [Xot pub.]
'88. The old channel of Xiagara river. [Xot pub.]
'".lO. Sections of drift in Yigo county, Ind. [Xot pub.]
'91. Exploration of Mt. Orizaba. [Xot pub.]
Seatox, Hexry E.
'88. The epidermal cells .of Tillandsia.
'89. Some stem characters in Composita*.
'90. Xotes on Gautemalan Composita-.
'<»] . The flora of Mt. ( )rizaba. [Pr. V.]
Selhy, Aio. D.
'91. On the occurrence of certain western plants near ( olumbus, ( )hio.
[Partially B. G., 1891, p. 155, and Pr. Y.]
SlIA.NXON, W. P.
'86. The physical geography of Decatur county, Indiana, during the
Xiagara period. [Xot pub.]
•29
'87. A list of the fishes of Decatur county, Ind. [Published privately.
Apply to the author.]
'87. List of butterflies of Decatur county, Ind. [Not pub.]
'90. The occurrence of Yeratrum woodii in Decatur county, Ind.
Smith, Alex.
'91. Condensation of acetophenone with ketols by means of dilute po-
■ tassium cyanide. [Pr. V.]
'91. Condensation of acetone with benzoin, by means of dilute potassi-
um cyanide. [Pr. Y.]
'91. Pyrone and pyridone derivatives from benzoyl-acetone. [Pr. Y.]
8PILL.MAN, W. J.
'89. A comparison of the life histories of difi'erent forms of plants.
'89. The height of the atmosphere.
'90. A refraction rainbow.
'90. Geological section at Yincennes.
'90. Preliminary list of Knox county plants.
'90. Introduction of noxious weeds.
Stone, W. E.
'89. The carbohydrates of the sweet potato. [Ag. S., l\', p. :>] and B.
d. c. G., XXIII, p. 1406.]
'89. Specific reaction for the penta glucoses. [Not pub.]
'90. Notes on xylose. [Not pub.]
'90. On qualitative and quantitative reactions for furfurol. [Journal
of Analytical and Applied Chem. Y. No. 8, and B. d. c. G., XXIY,
p. 3019.]
'91. The digestibility of the pentose carbo-hydrates. [Am. C. J.. XIY,
No. 1 and B. d. c. G., XXY, p. 563.]
'91. The action of phenyl-hydrazin on fufurol. [Not pub. elsewhere.]
Stone, W. E. and Dumont Lotz.
'90. On a pentaglucose obtained from corn cobs. [Am. C. J.. XIII, Xo.
5, and B. d. c. G., XXIY, 1657.]
Sweeney, R. G.
'88. [See Waters, E. G.]
Taylor,. F. B.
'88. An objection to the contraction hypothesis as accounting for
mountains.
'88. The sun's light.
'90. The highest old shoreline on Mackinac Island.
'90. The effect of the Great Lakes on the ice sheet.
Test, Fked C.
'88. A new kind of phosphorescent organ in Porichthys. [Bulletin
Essex Institute, XXI, pp. 43-52.]
Thomas, M. B.
'91. An apparatus for determining the iseriodicity of root pressure.
[B. G., 1892, p. 212, and Pr. V.]
30
'91. The scales of Lepidoptera. [Not pub.]
Thompson, Matrick.
'85. Mineralogical investigation in Indiana.
'S7. The secondary functions of the hyoid cornua in Picus and Colaptes.
[Chapter on "Hyoid Hints" in the author's " Sylvan Secrets,"
pp. 125-i:;<), John B. Alden, X. Y., 1887.]
Tix<ii.EY, E. M.
'91. [See Moore, J. E.]
TlDOK, JOSKI'II H.
'90. Some features of the occurrence of Viola pedata var. bicolor. [Not
pub.]
Ulrev, a. B.
'91. A review of the Kmbiotocidiv. [Pr V.]
UXDEKWOOD, L. M.
'91. The distribution of tropical ferns in peninsular Florida. Pr. V.]
'91. Some additions to the state flora from Putnam county.
'91. Connecting forms among the polyporoid fungi. [Zoe, III, pp.
91-95.]
VAX NuYs, T. C.
'88. Estimation of water in oils. [Not pub.]
'91. Some suggestions to teachers of science or mathematics in high
schools. [Pr. v.]
Yax Nuys, T. C. and B. F. Adams.
'86. The estimation of carbonic acid in the air. [Am. C. J., IX.]
A\\N Nuys, T. C. and Robert Hessler.
'88. Researches in invertin fermentation. [Not pub.]
Van Nuys, T. C. and R. F. Lyons.
'88. Review of the methods of estimating starch in cereals. [Not pub.]
'90. A new method for quantitative determination of albumen in urine.
[Am. C. J., XII.]
'91. Carbonic acid in the urine. [Am. C. J., XI\', and Pr. V.]
Waldo, C. A.
'87. The problem of the earthquake center. [P. A. A. A. S., 1888.]
'88. A note on maxima and minima. [Not pub.]
'89. Probable future of petroleum in southwest Indiana. [Indianapolis
Journal.]
'91. Some geometrical prupositions.
'91. Notes on numerical I'adices.
Walker, Chas.
'80. [See Noyes, W. A.]
AVarder, R. B.
'85. Chemical work in Indiana. .
Waters, E. G. and J. B. Peddle.
'88. A new automatic repeater.
Water^^, E. G., and R. G. Sweexkv.
'88. A new switch for telegraph and telephone use.
Webster, F. M.
'8<). Some biological studies of Lixus macer, Say, and L. concavus, LeG.
[Entomologica Americana, V, pp. 11-16.]
'S7. An unusual appearance of Apatura celtis along the St. Francis
river, in Arkansas. [Insect Life, I, p. 29.]
"87. Drouth, and its effect upon insect increase and decrease. [Not
pub.]
'87. Distribution of some species of injurious insects, throughout Indi-
diana, during the season of 1887. [Not pub.]
'87. The overflow of the Mississippi river and its effect upon the spe-
cies of SimuHum (buffalo gnats) infesting the smaller inland
streams of the adjacent country. [U. S. Dep. Agr. Bureau An.
Industry. 4th and 5th reports '87-'88, pp. 156-05.]
'91. Gontributions to a knowledge of the grain Toxoptera (Toxoptera
graminum.) [Insect Life, IV, pp. 245-8.]
'91. Buffalo gnats (Simulium) in Indiana and Illinois. [Tr. V.]
'91. Some insects of Tasmania. [Pr. Y.]
'91. Early published references to injurious insects. [Insect Life IV,
pp. 262-5.]
WlI.EY, H. W.
'86. The scientific study of psychic phenomena. [Not pub.]
'86. Causes of variation of sucrose in sorghum. [B. G., XII, p. 54, and
Bulletin 18, Chem. Div. V, S. Dept. Agl. p. 11 L]
'88. The value of the refractive index in determining the adulterations
of lard. [J. of A. C, II. Part 3 and Bulletin 13. Chm. Div. l'. S.
Dept. Agl. Part 4, p. 442.]
'88. The present condition of the sorghum sugar industrj- in the United
States. [Proc. of 8th Ann. Meeting of Soc. for Promotion of Agl.
Science.]
Wiley, W. B.
'88. [See Xoyes, W. A.]
WiNDLE, W. S.
'87. The skull of Necturus lateralis.
'88. Raphides in fruit of Monstera deliciosa.
Woodford, A. B.
'86. The nation — the subject matter of political science.
WOOLMAN, A. J.
'89. Notes on Indiana butterflies. [Not pub.]
'90. The fishes of the interior of Kentucky. [Bulletin U. S. Fish Com.]
8-2
ABBREVIATIONS IN THE PRECEDING AUTHORS'
INDEX.
A. X. Y. A. S. — Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Ag. y. — Agricultural Science.
Am. C. J. — American Chemical Journal.
Am. G. — American Geologist.
Am. J. S. — American Journal of Science.
Am. M. M. — American Monthly Microscoi'iral Journal.
Am. N. — American Naturalist.
B. d. c. G.— Berichte der deutschen chem. (iesellschaft.
B. G. — Botanical ( iazette.
B. I. E. S.— Bulletin Indiana Agl. Experiment Station.
C. E. — Canadian Entomologist.
I. F. — Indiana Farmer.
J. C. S. of N. H.— Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History.
J. of A. C— Journal of Analytical Chemistry.
J. of M. — Journal of Morphology.
N. A. J. of H. — North Amer. Journal of Homeopathy.
O. & O. — Ornithologist and Oologist.
P. A. A. A. S. — Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.
P. C. A. S. — Proceedings California Academy of Science.
P. S. M.— Popular Science Monthly.
Pr. U. S. N. M.— Proceedings U. S. National Museum.
Pr^ v.— Current volume of Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science.
addrEkSs bv the president.
0. p. Hay, Eutler T'niversity, Irvington, Ind.
A COXSIDERATION 01" SOME THEORIES OF EVOLUTION.
We find in the physical history of the earth an illustration of evolution
in the modern sense of the word, a progress in accordance with fixed laws
from the simple to the complex, from the undifferentiated to the difi"er-
entiated.
That philosophical minds should suspect that the world of organic be-
ings, animals and plants, had been the subject of a similar course of evo-
lution is not strange ; and we find that such a suggestion has been often
and long ago made. In modern times Lamarck has led the way; but
neither were his theories adequate, nor were the men of his time ready
to abandon their ancient conceptions. But when, in 1859, Darwin and
Wallace pviblished the results of their independently pursued studies and
proposed a theory, definite and supported by a multitude of facts, their
works attracted immediate and sustained attention. It is doubtful if any
doctrine so subversive of universally accepted ideas has ever, in so short
a time, received the recognition of so many of the educated and thought-
ful minds of the world.
The doctrine of organic evolution, which attempts to explain the vari-
ous differences and resemblances which exist among organic beings, de-
pends on two laws, lieredity and variability. The one law ordains that the
living thing shall possess the essential characters of its parent or parents;
the other law that it shall depart from those characters to a greater or
less extent. Neither law can be questioned by anybody ; only the extent
to which the one law prevails over the other is in dispute. The evolu-
tionists maintain that the law of variability may prevail over heredity
to such an extent that after a greater or less number of generations, the
deviations from the original form and structure may be so great that a
new species may be produced.
In the attempt to explain how it is that new species originate, Darwin
and Wallace hit upon the idea of " natural selection." In nature ho two
3
individuals of a species are just alike. Each varies in some slight respect
from the ty]>e. Of these variations, some may be indilferent, some use-
ful, some harmful. According to these authors, these variations may
affect all parts of the body, the form, the size and strength of single
organs, color, or mental ({ualities. Again, all species tend to increase
beyond the limits of space and food supply. From this latter cause there
arises between the members of any species a struggle for existence. More-
over, all species are warred ui)on by many others, by which their food is
appropriated and through which they themselves may be appropriated
as food. In such a dire struggle it is,. on the average, the best endowed
individuals that will succeed in maintaining themselves and in produc-
ing offspring to inherit their useful characters ; that is, the most vigorous
individuals, those which have developed in the highest degree weapons
of offense and defense, or protective colors, or the greatest cunning. The
weakest, the most exposed, the most stupid, will perish and leave few or
no young. From all the young produced by every species there is thus a
constant and unsparing selection being made in favor of those individ-
uals which can best endure the stress of the conditions. Hence the
meaning of Darwin's phrase " natural selection,'' and of that used by
Spencer, " survival of the fittest." Through the selection, for many gen-
erations, of the individuals possessing certain beneficial characters, these
at length become fixed in the organization and strengthened until the
organism is no longer what it was, but may have departed widely there-
from. Since success in the struggle is constantly demanding greater
strength of limb and body, more efficient organs for each function, more
weapons for assailing and repelling, more perfectly protective coloration,
the general tendency of evolation has been upward ; but the vigor with
which the battle is waged may result in driving some species into such
situations that degeneration may occur. Such are many burrowing ani-
mals and most parasites.
This process of natural selection is therefore quite similar to the artifi-
cial selection which is practiced by breeders in their effort to develop new
varieties of animals and plants. Those individuals are selected which
possess in the highest degree the desired quality ; they are crossed with
others having, if possible, the same quality, and the offspring of the pair
are treated in the same manner, until the character sought is fully devel-
oped.
The rigorousness of the selective process that is going on in nature can
35
hardly be appreciated by one who has not given attention to the matter.
To a casual observer, it may appear as if the most worthless individuals
got a living, while the better perished. The well-favored do often suc-
cumb, and in ordinary times the weak may escape ; but when periods of
great food-scan^ity, or of intense heat or cold, or of drought come, then
the weak perish miserably. The eggs produced by some fishes reach into
the millions. Could each one develop into an adult fish, which should
in its turn give origin to an equal number of off'spring, a very few years
would sufiice to fill all the seas with that fish. As it is, only perhaps one
egg in a million becomes an adult fish. The least protected eggs are
swallowed by enemies, the weakest young fishes die from disease and ex-
posure, while only the most vigorous escape.
Our wild rabbits pro'luce several young at a litter and a number of lit-
ters each year; yet the number of rabbits does not, on an average, in-
crease. As many rabbits must therefore die each year as are born, and
they seldom die of old age. Dogs and men, extreme cold and hunger,
carry them ott' by thousands. Is there not here abundant opportunity
for the development of swiftness of foot, acuteness of eye and ear, and of
endurance ?
As long as the environment remains about the same, little or no change
may occur in the structure or specific characters of animals ; but the
whole organization is kept up to the highest grade of efficiency. Should
there, however, be a gradual change in the conditions under which any
animal is living, there would come about a corresponding change in the
animal itself. Should there, for example, be developed a gradual increase
in the speed of our dogs, there would, I doubt not, occur a corresponding-
improvement in the swiftness of our rabbits. I can see no reason for
supposing that natural selection would not have the same effect here as
man's selection does in the case of trotting horses.
Darwin's theory of natural selection was based almost entirely on ob-
servations made on domesticated animals and plants. Organisms in a
state of nature did not seem to him to be subject to such frequent and
extensive variations, ^^e are only now beginning to appreciate how
numerous and how important these variations are. They do not affect in
only a slight degree a single organ of one individual in a decade or a
century, but isrobably every organ of every individual, and to a veiy
appreciable extent. The proverbial unlikeness of the individuals of every
species is due to this variation. Wallace, in his "Darwinism '' has given
us most impressive illustrations of this variation. ]Most of these illus-
trations have been drawn from the publications of our countryman, Dr.
J. A. Allen, and relate to the winter birds of Florida. Allen made large
collections and took accurate measurements of thos^e portions of the body
which are especially depended upon by naturalists in determining species,
the length of body, wings, tail, tarsus, toes, and bill. All these parts were
found to vary independently of one another, and the variations from the
mean length often amounted to from 12 to 25 per cent, of the mean length.
While, too, most of the parts measured were not far from the mean on
each side, yet there were always a considerable number of individuals of
each species that furnished measurements wide of the mean. The same
principle is shown by Wallace to hold good among such lizards and
mammals as have been studied. AVhat is greatly needed is more extended
observations among all classes of animals. I have examined some of our
common snakes with reference to this matter of variation. We get the
specific characters among snakes from the number of rows of scales across
the back, the number br^ad plates along the abdomen and on the tail,
and from the kind and arrangement of the colors. Anybody who has
studied snakes has soon learned how extremely variable are their colors.
Among specimens of the spreading adder, for example, may be found
snakes of a plain gray or olive color without other markings, snakes with
mere indications of blotcTies. snakes with most conspicuous spots of bright
red or yellow and black, and snakes which are plain black. The other
characters vary to a perplexing extent. What are merely individual, or
at most, varietal peculiarities, have often furnished the basis for new
species. In order to bring before you the range of the variations in im-
portant parts of these animals, I present the results of estimates which
show how four species of our common snakes vary. ■■
These are the common garter snake [Euiainla sistalis), the black snake
{Bascanion constrictor), the smooth, green snake {Cydopfm vernal'k), and
the ring-necked snake {Diadophis pundaius.) From these it appears that
in the number of the body vertebrte the garter snake varies from the aver-
age to the extent of 14 per cent., the black snake 6 per cent., the green snake
only 4.5 per cent, and the ring- necked snake 13 per cent. In number of
caudal vertebrae, the garter snake varies 35 per cent., the black snake 20
* The results here giveu have been deduced from the tables of measurements and
countsof ventral and caudal plates giveu in Baird and (Jirard's "Serpeuts of North
America." Any considerable collection of the species above studied would furnish
still sreater deviations from the means.
87
per cent., the green snake 23 per cent., and the ring-necked snake 23.5 per
cent. In proportion of tail to body the garter snake varies 9.4 per cent.,
the black snake 28 per cent., the green snake 25 per cent., and the ring-
necked snake over 35 per cent. There is scarcely a doubt that every
character in each of these species will be found to be as unstable as those
which have been studied. And it must be observed, too, that each of the
characters varies independently of the others, so that we may get any
combination that we may want. If breeders should find it to their inter-
ests to raise a varied assortinent of black snakes they could, doubtless, by
careful selection and crossing, produce short-bodied snakes with long
tails, long-bodied snakes with short tails, or snakes extremely short or
very long in both parts. Much more might we expect that natural se-
lection, which has more abundant materials to work upon and unlimited
time, should be able to produce varieties and species to suit the require-
ments of the changing conditions of geological periods.
While the main proposition of Darwin and Wallace that species arise
from earlier species by descent with modification, has been almost unani-
mously accepted by the scientific world, a number of scientific authorities
have, within recent years expressed more or less dissatisfaction with the
prominence that Darwin and Wallace and their followers have given to
the doctrine of Natural Selection as an explanation of organic evolution.
This dissent has expressed itself in degrees from questioning whether or
not natural selection has been the only factor concerned, to open decla-
rations that it has had little or nothing to do with evolution. ( )f course,
those who deny the efliciency of selection to transform species endeavor
to find some other principles or forces which, in their estimation, act as
efficient causes, and thus we are beginning to witness the evolution of
various schools of evolution. And here it seems proper, as a matter of
justice to Darwin, to deny that he, at least in his later works, maintained
that natural selection is the only influence at work to bring about changes
in organisms. One cannot read his works with even moderate attention
without recognizing that he admitted the operation of the very forces
and principles that many of these later evolutionists rely on to explain
the phenomena of organic change. < )nly Darwin did not assign the same
high value to these factors that some authors do now. Wallace, ijn the
other hand, in his latest work advocates the earlier position of Darwin,
and stands for what he calls the "overwhelming importance of Natural
Sele<tion over all other agencies in the production of new species."
38
Now, it matters not the degree of importance that we give to Natural
Selection as a principle in organic evolution, it does not appear that we
can regard it as furnishing a final solution of the phenomena to be ex-
plained. This objection has been justly urged: Natural selection acts
only on characters which have been already produced and have become
either useful or hurtful. By what means have they been produced?
Before they can be selected they must exist; what principles or forces
gave them their existence? It has been urged that if there are intiuences
that can bring characters up to the stage where selection can begin to act
on them, the same intiuences might continue to perfect them. Darwin
saw the situation clearly. He says, in his " Descent of Man: " "With
respect to the causes of variability, we are in all cases very ignorant, but
we can see that in man, as in the lower animals, they stand in some
relation with the conditions to. which each species has been exposed dur-
ing several generations." He then mentions, as some of the probable
causes of change, the direct and definite action of changed conditions, the
efiects of increased use and disuse of parts, arrests of development, corre-
lated variations, &c. Under such circumstances it becomes a legitimate
subject of inquiry what those fox'ces and conditions are which have been
active in initiating changes in organisms, and what effect, if any, Natural
Selection has had in perpetuating and accumulating these new characters
and of repressing others.
One of the most recent and most thoroughly elaborated attempts to ac-
count for the variations of organisms is that of Dr. Aug. Weismann. It
is presented in a series of lectures delivered between the years 1880 and
1890. The fundamental idea of his theory he has denominated "the con-
tinuity of the germ-plaf<vi." All except the lowest animals are produced
from eggs, which are essentially cells. When the egg is fertilized, it de-
velops into an embryo by a process of division which leads to the pro-
duction of an immense number of cells. These, becoming more and more
differentiated in definite ways, form the tissues and organs of the adult
being. Thus, from a simple egg there arises an animal which inherits
the general features of the parent and even many of its minor peculiari-
ties of form and habits. At some time during embryonic development
there are separated from the other cells of the organism certain cells
which in due season develop into eggs, as a provision for the continua-
tion of the species. It appears hitherto to have been assumed that the
materials of these eggs, or germ-cells, is derived by some process of trans-
;5i)
formation from that composing the ordinary, but not yet greatly modi-
fied, cells of the body. Dr. AVeismann, on the other hand, maintains
that the egg, or more exactly the nucleus of the egg, contains a substance,
his germ-plasm, which possesses a peculiar chemical, and more especially
molecular, structure, and which is the bearer of " the whole of the inher-
ited tendencies of development." In the process of the development of
the embryo, not all of this germ plasm is consumed in the construction
of the body ; but a small portion is set aside and remains in the body of
the embryo unchanged, and destined to enter at the end into the forma-
tion of the eggs which shall give being to the next generation. The ma-
terials of the body cells Weismann calls somatoplasm, to distinguish it from
the germ-plasm. The germ-plasm, although borne about in the body of
the organism that in time will produce offspring, and though nourished
by its somatoplasm, is whollj^ distinct from the latter, and is very slightly
if at all affected by it. Weismann says of it: " The germ-plasm, or idio-
plasm of the germ-cell, certainly possesses an exceedingly complex min"
ute structure, but it is nevertheless a substance of extreme stability, for
it absorbs nourishment and grows enormously without the least change
in its complex molecular structure." Weismann even maintains that
this reproduction of the germ plasm without change may go on for thou-
sands of years. He has compared the germ- plasm to a creeping root-
stock which at intervals sends up a vigorous shoot. The shoot flourishes
for awhile and dies, but the rootstock survives, to produce other shoots
in indefinite number. The germ-plasm enjoys a sort of immortality.
The cause of heredity has always been a mystery. How is it that a
cell which has not the slightest resemblance to the animal that produced
it can go through a complicated series of divisions and transformations
and at last gradually, but unerring!}^, reproduce even to minute details
the structure and foim of the pai'ent ? How is it that two eggs, indistin-
guishable from each other, but laid by difi"erent animals, developing per-
haps under identical circumstances, can reproduce exact copies of their
respective parents? Darwin attempted to give an explanation by assum-
ing that each cell of any organism emits minute particles, called by him
gemmules, which enter the germ-cells and become there representatives of
the cells of the whole body. The germ-cells must according to this the-
ory contain millions of gemmules. When development of the egg occurs
the contained gemmules determine the reproduction of their respective
cells in due order of time, place, and form. When any part of the body
40
of the parent has undergone variation, this will be represented in the egg
by the gemmules of the part and may thereby be inherited. The im-
mense number of gemmules required to effect the results, as well as the
lack of sutticient evidence of a positive kind in favor of Darwin's theory,
have prevented its general acceptance.
On Weismann's theory, heredity follows from the assumption that both
parent and offspring are derived from the same mass of germ plasm.
That which had given origin to the parent must be expected to develop
into a similar organism in the offspring. That the germ-plasm develops
into the peculiar structure and form of both is due to its molecular struc-
ture, the result of gradual modifications which have been accumulating
during the ages that have elapsed since their earliest ancestor received
its being.
Some extremely important conclusions issue from the acceptance of
this theory of AVeismann's. If the germ-plasm, borne about in the body
of any organism, protected and nourished by it, does not have its mole-
cular constitution, on which the character of the offspring depends, at
all affected by the state of the parent's body then none of what are called
acquired characters can be transmitted from one generation to another.
This fact, if fact it be, strikes at the very root of other promising theo-
ries. Then none of the results of the use and disuse of organs will be
transmitted; none of the direct effects of the climate or soil, or any of the
environment on the body of the parent, will show in the descendants ;
nor will any mutilations be inherited. The heat or the cold, the drought
or the Hood, may produce the most profound effects on the animal or the
plant, in the way of altering its form or structure or color, but the off-
spring will not directly inherit any of these results.
Since, however, Weismann firmly believes that existing species have
been derived from older species by descent and modification, how does
he account for the variations that must have arisen ? This is done on the
theory of sexual mixture. The germ-plasm of every individual of every
species has certain peculiarities, which are passed on, with greater or less
intensity, to the next generation. The male animal or plant has certain
hereditary tendencies, that of the female different tendencies. When the
germ-cells of the two individuals have united, an organism develops that
is different in some respects from both the parents, being, as Weismann
expresses it, a compromise between the two developmental tendencies.
Since the numbers of individuals of every species are numerous and no
41
two are alike, new combinations of the germ-plasm are continually aris-
ing, and these express themselves in still other individuals which are
different from any that have ever lived. Amid all these variations, which
indeed will affect every organ, are some which are hurtful to the organ-
ism, and others which are advantageous. Such variations will come
under the influence of natural selection, the individuals possessing hurt-
ful variations being destroj^ed, those with advantageous variations being
preserved and made the means of transmitting on to future generations
the improvement. (Organic evolution, then, according to Weismann, de-
pends on two factors, variation brought about by sexual mixture, and
natural selection. Indeed, according to him, the production of variations
that may be inherited constitutes the whole significance of sex ; it is sim-
ply a device of nature for the origination of variations through which
natural selection may effect improvement. As a corollary from this prop-
osition Weismann deduces the conclusion that any organisms which do
not reproduce sexually, such as certain i)arthenogenetic insects and cru.s-
taeeans, cannot undergo variation; and should their environment change
to any considerable degree they must perish. However, since the ])ubli-
cation of his lectures, Weismann has been compelled t<> recede from this
position.
But if it be true that external influences have had nothing directly to
do in bringing about inheritable changes in organisms, and if the species
of one age have descended from more ancient species, how did the hered-
itary individual differences arise in the beginning? With most other
evolutionists he believes that the Metazoa have been derived from the
Protozoa. In the Protozoa, there is no reproduction by means of eggs.
The animal is at once parent and egg. When reproduction occurs, it is
usually accomplished by the division of the animal into two portions of
equal size and similar form, so that it is impossible to say that either is
parent or offspring. Each part reproduces in a similar way ; and since
there appears to be no reason why, in case the environment remains
favorable, any of the products of division should ever die, AVeismann re-
gards them all as having potential immortality.
It must be remembered now that AVeismann admits that external forces
and conditions, as well as the use anil disuse of organs, may affect pro-
foundly the organization of even the higher animals, although he denies
that any of the direct effects will be passed on the next generation. In
like manner the Protozoan is influenced by external conditions and would
42
have changes wrought in its body. Xow since its body is at the same time
the reprodueUce element, whatever modifications have arisen in the body
would be inherited by the two portions into which it would divide. " If,"
says Weismann, " a Protozoon, by constantly struggling against the me-
chanical inrtuence of currents in water, were to gain a somewhat denser
and more resistant protoplasm, or were to acquire the power of adhering
more strongly than the other individuals of his species, the peculiarity
in question would be directly continued on into its two descendants, for
the latter are at first nothing more than the two halves of the former."
By the time, therefore, that some of the Protozoa, through more and more
intimate association into colonies, by differentiations of the cells for the
performance of different functions, and the production of germ-cells as
distinguished from the body-cells, became modified into the primitive
Metazoa, those individual differences had arisen which, constantly multi-
plied ever since by sexual mixture, have furnished the materials on
which Natural Selection has worked to produce all the living animal
forms that now exist.
It must be understood that, as regards the reproductive elements of the
higher animals, AVeismann contends for the continuity of the germ-plasm,
not for that of the germ-cells. Embryology proves that the latter cannot
be maintained. As Weismann says, " continuity of the germ-cells does
not now take place, except in very rare instances." In certain insects
there are, at the very beginning of development, a few cells separated
from the others and afterwards received into the body of the embryo, in
order later to develop into eggs. In some crustaceans, the germ-cells be-
come distinct when about thirty cells have been produced. In verte-
brates they do not usually become distinct from those composing the body
until the embryo has been completely formed. Among the Hydroids, re-
production occurs largely by budding. The buds may develop into inde-
pendent bodies, jelly fishes, which swimming away and attaining a large
size, give origin to the germ cells. These do not make their appearance
until after hundreds and thousands of cell -generations have been passed
through. They arise oi'iginally from certain cells of the ectoderm, but
make long migrations to the places whei'e they finally undergo develop-
ment into perfect eggs. Among plants, a fertilized ovule gives origin to
an embryo. This may develop into a large tree, which finally will, at the
tii3s of branches a hundred feet away, produce new ovules. Through
millions of cells the germ-plasm must have made its way to reach those
48
terminal buds. And the cells must contain this precious .substance with-
out showing its presence. Weismann says, " It is therefore clear that all
the cells of the embryo must for a long time function as somatic cells ;
and none of them can be reserved as germ-cells and nothing else." How
then does he explain the transferrence, through such long distances, of
the germ- plasm ? Keferring to the Hydroids he says : " I concluded that
the germ-plasm is present in a very finely divided and therefore invisible
state in certain somatic cells from the very be.iiinning of enibrj'^onic de-
velopment, and that it is transmitted through innumerable cell-genera-
tions to those remote individuals of the colony in which the sexual pro-
ducts are formed."
But this transportation of the germ-plasm through so many generations
of cells is by no means the only difiiculty that besets Weismann's theory.
There is a number of plants, among them the begonia, which may be pro-
pagated from pieces of the leaves. It would almost appear as if single
cells of the leaf would reproduce the plant perfectly. Among the ferns
it is no uncommon thing for new plants to spring from the surface of the
leaves or of the stalks. Among mosses almost any cell of the root-hairs
will develop into new plants. As pointed out by Strassburger, the germ-
plasm must, in these cases, not merely travel through the plant to the
reproductive origans, but be widely diffused throughout every part of the
plant, and Weismann admits that this is the case. Similar phenomena
occur among animals. If the fresh water Hydra is divided into two pieces,
each will develop into a perfect Hydra. Trembly, in his experiments on
these things, minced some of them into as small pieces as he could, and
almost every piece developed into a perfect animal. It is stated that as
many as forty were thus reproduced from a single one. When certain
worms are cut in two, each part develops into a perfect individual. All
animals show some power of reproducing lost and injured parts. How
shall we explain these facts of reproduction and restoration? Is the
restoration of the hydra due to the presence of germ-plasm or not? If it
is claimed that it is due to the germ-plasm, it may be replied that it has
not reproduced the animal, but only a part, that part which was missing,
it may be the half of it or the greater part of it. When the worm is cut
in two one cut surface may develop a new tail, the other surface a new
head. Had the cut been made the thickness of a cell further forward,
those cells that in the first case engaged in developing a new head would
probably as readily have gone to work to produce a new tail. Does germ-
44
plasm possess the power of reproducing the whole animal, or the head end
or the tail end, according to circumstances ? If the germ- plasm is con-
cerned in these restorations of parts, we can hardly exclude it from other
cases of restorations, and this will lead us to the admission that germ-
plasm is present in nearly all the tissues of all animals. If the position
is taken that the germ-plasm is not concerned in the cases that have been
referred to, but some degraded product of germ-plasm, then we may say
that such materials have powers curiously similar to those of germ-plasm
itself, but even more wonderful. To what extent is the material of the
cells of the cut surface of the worm different from that of germ-plasm
itself, when those cells have the inherited power to produce either head
or tail as demanded by the needs of the worm? If the molecular struct-
ure of germ-cells and of body-cells is so similar, is it impossible that some
of the body-cells may undergo retransformation into germ-cells? Further-
more, whether this suppositious reproductive material is or is not con-
cerned in the restoration of the minced hydra it must, if it exists at all,
be present in all the cells. For, so far as we may judge, each hydra that
has grown from a minute bit of hydra is capable of giving origin, when
divided, to many new hydras, and these to others indefinitely. Since the
last of such a series would, without doubt, be able to produce eggs the
germ-plasm must have been contained in all the cells of all the series.
Weismann's conception is that the highly organized germ-plasm found
in the nucleus is, after the first division, no longer what it was before,
except that part which has been reserved, — is indeed no longer germ-plasm
at all. At each subsequent division its structure becomes simpler as it
gives origin to more and more complex tissues ; that is, its energy runs
down as it does work in forming tissues. He claims that, when the germ-
plasm has thus become simplified, its character as germ-plasm can never
be restored. It might be supposed that, if we could find any cells which,
having once formed a part of any body-tissue, should take upon itself the
powers of a reproductive cell, "Weismann's theory would stand disproved.
We then direct attention to the somatic cells of hydroids Avhich develop
into eggs. But Weismann accounts for this by supposing that the germ-
plasm enters the cells and takes the place of the germ-plasm.
However, it appears to me that it must be admitted that the germ-
plasm is so widely diffused through the tissues of many, if not all, organ-
isms, and is so much like the substance of many other cells in its repro-
ductive powers, as to make it doubtful whether there is any such dis-
45
tinct material. We may not be able to prove tbat it does not exist, but
we may do as we do with other ghosts, prove the superfluousness of its
existence. It is indeed a wonderful property that ia possessed by the
germ-cells of the animal, that of reproducing the form, organs, tissues,
and millions of cells of the parent : but the cells that can reproduce the
severed head of any animal, with its many sense organs, appear to me to
possess a property even more wonderful. For the germ-cell has a struc-
ture and corresi)onding capacities which are the ingrained results of
countless repetitions of the act of reproduction, while nothing of this
kind can be said with regard to the cells which reproduce the head, or
the tail, or the foot. It looks as if every cell o,f the whole body were
originally endowed with the capability of reproducing all the others in
<lue order; as if, indeed, something like Darwin's theory of pangenesis
were really true. Through subsequent high differentiation of structure,
or through unfavorable surroundings, the cells may not be able to accom-
plish the restoration, but they show that they possess at least a memory
of their old duties.
In his last essay, that which treats of the ti'ansmission of acquired
characters, Weismann reasserts strongly their non-transmissibility, be
they produced in any way whatever. At the same time, he seems to me
to introduce a new explanation of variation, and to make admis^ons
which may prove fatal to his theory. It must be recollfcted that Weis-
mann has been contending for the stability of the germ- plasm; that, in
order to account for the variations that individuals show, he has invoked
the agency of sexual mixture, which he regards as an invention of nature
for that special purpose; that he has claimed that animals reproducing
by parthenogenesis can undergo no adaptive changes. When speaking
of the effect of external influences he says : " Without altogether denj^-
ing that such influences may di'cctly modify the germ-cells, I neverthe-
less believe that they have no share in the production of hereditary indi-
vidual differences." He has just previously maintained that the trans-
formation of a species can take place only through the accumulation of
these individual differences. Now in the last essay, in discussing certain
objections which have been urged against his doctrines, he contends that
external conditions, light, heat, moisture, nutrition, and their opposites,
can produce great changes in the body, but none directly in the germ-
plasm. He grants, however, that the environment may act indmctly on
the germ-plasm, so as to bring about important changes in the characters
46
of animals and plants. He declares that he has never doubted the trans-
mission of changes which depend on alterations of the germ-plasm. He
then inquires: "And how could the germ-plasm be changed except by the
operation of external influences, using the words in their widest sense?"
To this we may reply, that he has hitherto attributed all changes to sex-
ual mixture alone. If he is willing to admit that use and disuse of or-
gans, changes in nutrition, and in the environment in general, may bring
about modifications of organisms, he will not find it difficult to come to
an agreement with many of his opponents, even if he does insist on post-
poning the results for a few generations. A few may insist that some
characters acquired by the parent, for instance by the use of an organ,
may be inherited by the next generation, but most persons would con-
tend onlj' that a predisposition to the reproduction of the character is
inherited.
PAPERS READ.
Condensation of acetophenone with ketoi.s bv mean.s ok dilute pota.s-
siuM cyanide. By Alex. Smith.
, [abstract.]
It has been proven for some years that when beuzaldehyde is boiled in
dilute alcohol with a small quantity of potassium cyanide, two molecules
of benzaldehyde unite to form benzoin. The present paper describes a
class of cases where the same reagent has the power of causing the union
of two bodies with the elimination of water— a condensation. The inter-
action takes place between a ketol such as benzoin, on the one hand and
a ketone such as acetophenone on the other. For example benzoin and
acetophenone in dilute alcoholic solution, in presence of a little potassium
cyanide, yield on boiling desyl-acetophenone. (Jour. Chem. Soc. LVII,
p. 643.)
C, H— CO— CH-()li + ('l 1 — CO-C,H,=
' ■ I
C,;H-,
C,H-,— CO-CH~CH,— CO— C,H-, tH,0
1
C,;H-,
The interaction is now found to extend to other ketols. From cuminoin
47
and acetophenone, cnmino-desylacetophenone was prepared accordingto tlie
equation —
C,„H,,0, ^C,H,0=C,,H,„0,+H,0
It is a substance melting at 145° C. With phenyl hydrazine it yields an
o-diazine derivative and its constitution as a 1:4 diketone was proved by
its yielding furfurane and pyrrol derivatives. Piperonoin, f uroin, and ben-
zoylcarbinol have also been used, and the interaction seems to hold for
them also. The products have not yet been fully investigated.
In all cases a small amount of another, much less soluble, product is
formed. The equation for this action seems in the case of benzoin to be —
:]C,H-,-CUH+C,HsO=C,,,H,,0,+2H,()
The examination of these products is in progress.
Condensation op acetone witji benzoin hy means of dillte potassium
CYANIDE. By Alex. Smith.
[abstract. J
In connection with the work mentioned in the preceding paper, experi-
ments were also made where the ketol was benzoin but acetone was used
in place of acetophenone. The main course of the interaction was an
entirely difterent one. A substance melting at 24G° C was produced accord-
ing to the e(iuation —
:K'„H,-Ct)H+C,H,;0=C,.H,„0, 2H,0
It appears to possess the following constitution :
0
H
H
H
CJI-,
C
/ \
H-C (•
!l I
C„H-— C C
^ /
c
/ ^
C.H^ OH
It yields a monoxim and a monophenyl hydrazoue. With acetic anhy-
dride it yields the acetate of triphenyl phenol. From this triphenyl phenol
itself is obtained by saponification. Distillation over zinc dust yields the
hydrocarbon triphenyl benzene and the original substance yields the same
4S
product under similar treatment. A substance, found to have almost ident-
ical properties, is described by Japp (Chem. 8oc. Jour., vol. LYII, p. 783).
He had formerly ascribed to it the formula Cjr.HjoO,. In the later note
he points out that the analysis agrees approximately with the formula
C04H20O2. The substance was prepared by Japp's method, namely the
action of dilute caustic potash on a mixture of benzoin and acetone in alco-
holic solution. It appears to be the same body as that obtained by the
action of potassium cyanide, but acetic anhydride acts on it with extreme
difficulty only and distillation over zinc dust yields none of the hydro-
carbon.
Pyrone and pvridone derivatives from benzoyl acetone. By Alex. Smith.
[abstract.]
Conrad and Guthzeit's reaction was applied to benzoyl acetone. Cupro-
benzoyl acetone was found to yield with phosgene a pyrone derivative pos-
sessing the formula—
O
II
C
'' \
C,H-— CO— C ('— CO-C, H,
II II
CH,-C C— CH,
\ /
()
Dimethyldi-benzoyl pyrone melts at 188° C With phenyl hydrazine it
yields a diphenylhydrazone and with ammonia the oxygen of the ring is
replaced by the group : NH and dibenzoyl-lutidone is formed. Similarly
the action of aniline gives dibenzoylphenyl-lutidone. These substances
are bases who.se hydro-chlorides form double salts with platinum tetra-
chloride.
Carhon dioxide in the urine. By T. C. Van Nuy.s and K. E. Lyon.s,
From the intense alkalinity of the normal urates, as well as the di and
basic phosphates of potassium and sodium, we were led to believe that,
ordinarily the urine is not alkaline from the presence of the carbonates of
49
the alkali metals ; that in all probability COo is not in combination in nor-
mal or moderately alkaline urine.
To determine this, the CO 2 in the total urine of 24 hours was estimated
after employing, (1) mixed diet, (2) vegetable diet, (3) after injesting large
doses of neutral tartrate of sodium.
(1). Mixed diet — Urine acid in reaction.
First day . . . 0.64 gram. CO 3. Fourth day • . 0.56 gram. CO 2.
Second day . . 0.49 " " Fifth day . . .0 45 "
Third day . . . 0.60 " " Sixth day . . . 0.79 " "
Average for each day, 0.588 gram. COj.
(2). Vegetable diet — T'rine strongly alkaline, but did not effervesce on
the addition of an acid.
First day 1.20 gram. CO o. -»
Second day • • 1.16 " " I Average for each day, 1.09 gram. CO^.
Third day. . . 0.93 " " i
(3). After injesting neutral tartrate of sodium urine became alkaline,
which was in part due to carbonates, as the urine effervesced slightly on the
addition of acid.
First period 48 hours Gram. C^ H4 Na, Og Gram. CO2 in the urine
following "mixed diet": taken in 24 hours: of 24 hours:
First day 10 1.42
Second day 10 1.65
Second period 48 hours
following "vegetable diet":
First day 15 1.30
Second day 15-17 2.67
From our investigations we conclude:
1. Combined CO2 is not ordinarily a constituent of normal urine.
2. When CO2 does appear in combination, it is owing to the excessive
alkalinity of the blood when it combines with the hydrates of potassium and
sodium.
3. Alkalinity of normal urine, unless excessive in degree, is caused by
di- or tri-basic phosphates, and normal urates of potassium and sodium.
Results of estimation of chlorixk in .mineral waters by Volhard's
PLAN. By Sherman Davis.
In "Die Untersuchung des Wassers," by Drs. Tierman and Gartner, page
132, we find directions for the estimation of chlorine in mineral waters.
The method given is essentially that of Volhard. It is the object of this
4
oO
paper to call attention to two points in this process: First, though it has
been remarked by previous observers that there is a reaction between the
diver chloride formed and the ammonium sulphocyanide, is not this reaction
sufficient to produce an appreciable error? We here give some observa-
tions made, with this point in view.
WITH DISTILLED WATER.
>
0.
Time
Min.
Filtered.
To ^■
Na CI.
tVN.
Ag.NOg
iV N Am.
Sulph.
Ferric
Alum.
HNO,
(1.2)'
-
1 . .
5
no
4
1.62
o
3
o
9
5
5^
1.85
a
3
1.70
4
2
"
1.70
5
3
a
1.75
fi
o
u
1.65
7
u
(1
1.70
8
1 2
((
1.80
These data seem to indicate that even though the time be reduced to a
minimum, the results are inconsistent and misleading. Now these varia-
tions may be eliminated by a process of filtering. Introduce a quantity of
sodium chloride, say 4cc from a ^\ normal solution, into a 200cc graduated
flask, add 4cc nitric acid (1.2 sp. gr.), free from nitrous acUl, and with dis-
tilled water at 15° C fill to mark. Mix well. When the silver chloride has
been separated, filter off lOOcc of the fluid through a dry filter. Introduce
the filtrate into a titrating flask, add 2— 3cc sat. sol. ferric alum and titrate
with the j\ nor. sol. am. sulphocyanide, till the addition of one drop causes a
light brown color to appear. This color once produced will be permanent.
The results of such a device are shown by the following data :
No.
Time
Filtered.
Na CI.
Ag. NO3
j\ N Am.
Sulph.
Ferric
Alum.
HNO,
(1.2)
1
2
3
4
5
()
7
8
yes
4cc
7(
:c
(
(
1.55
1.50
u
These results agree with the quantities introduced and are constant. This
device was employed in estimating the chlorine in the waters from AVest
51
Baden, French Lick, Mt. Aris, Indian and Trinity Springs. The results
were constant and accurate. It also holds in waters containing much mineral
matter and organic matter to 350 parts in 100,000.
Second. "Will there, without filtering, be an appreciable error? We pro-
duce the following data :
WITH DISTILLED WATER.
No.
Time.
' 10 -^^
NaCl.
tVN
Ag.NO.
TO Am.
Sulph.
Ferric Alum
HNO3
(1.2)
1
2
■>
4
o
6
/
8
1
5
10
12
10
10
10
10
3cc
5
'•>
(>
6
3.0CC
3.5
3.5
6.5
6.5
.7Scc
.75
.75
.82
.75
1.00
.88
1.00
3
3
We differed from the authors in this — that the solution was gently agitated
until the color no longer disappeared. With such a standard the error may
reach 1.77 pts. in 100,000 pts. as shown by the eighth titration. The observa-
tions justify the following inferences :
First. There is an appreciable reaction between the silver chloride and
the ammonium sulphocyanide.
Second. The error varies directly with the quantity of chlorine present,
and the time employed.
Third. When the reaction of chlorine upon silver nitrate is effected in
the presence of ammonium sulphocyanide, the results are inconstant.
Fourth. That it is necessary to filter off the silver chloride, before add-
ing the ferric salt.
Fifth. That by filtering the results are eery accurate.
Sixth. That if the solution, unfiltered, be allowed to stand ten minutes,
the reactions which take place, will produce very appreciable errors.
Some suggestions to teachers of science or mathematics ix high schools.
By Thos. C. Van Nuys.
It is the purpose of the writer to endeavor to indicate, as briefly as prac-
ticable, the spirit which should influence teachers of science or mathematics
in high schools. »
It is needless to state in this connection that the spirit, in which a teacher
52
performs his duty, arises from his conception of what education is, conse-
quently, correct views of education in general, are of very great import-
ance to teachers. No system of education can exist, without grave defects,
unless there is in the system a certain degree of uniformity in the curricu-
lum of study. Classes of studies for periods of time should be so grouped,
that by the pursuit of them, the pupil is led to the highest degree of disci-
pline and culture. Fortunately, the course of study in the public schools
of this country is pretty well formulated, but, unfortunately, the course is
better adapted for preparing pupils for technical or business education than
for scholarship or the learned professions. This defect, however, may, in
part, be remedied by the efficiency of teachers.
In order that the teacher of elementary science or mathematics in a high
school may become proficient in his work he should first determine what
benefit are the pupils to derive from a course of instruction in mathematics
a ad elementary science. Notwithstanding, the tendency of the age is in
favor of technical education, the fact is, no class of studies can take the
place of the inflected languages, history and literature for a high degree of
discipline and culture, and, that full benefit should be derived from lin-
guistic studies, they should be introduced, early in the course, as training
in them is easier at an early age.
The study of the humanities, if pursued early in life, when the emo-
tional faculties are springing into existence, results in refining, cultivating
the tastes and engendering a broad philanthropy. This is readily under-
stood when it is taken into consideration that through the study of the
ancient languages, the pupil becomes acquainted with different phases
of human thought, and, because different from modern thought, they are
not the less human.
With thorough training in these studies, early in life, the pupil becomes
disciplined and refined, disciplined, by long continued mental drill, neces-
sary in acquiring knowledge of the inflected languages, and refined, by
sympathy for mankind acquired by a knowledge of the vicissitudes through
which the human race has passed. This comes from the study of the hu-
manities being subjective as well as objective. On the other hand, the
study of science and mathematics is objective. In these pursuits, the emo-
tions may be dormant, while reason is called into activity. If this be true,
it is readily understood why the study of languages, history and literature
should precede the study of the sciences and higher mathematics.
To reach tlie highest results in education the tastes, the moral faculties
53
and the sensibilities should be developed as well as the intellectual ; other-
wise, the development is not symmetrical.
The teacher should not encourage the popular opinion that the education
which does not enable a person to superintend a factory, make shoes, or
build a bridge, is worthless.
In this materialistic age we are apt to employ our educational forces so as
to intensify the mad strife we have about us, to make prominent those
studies, by a knowledge of which, wealth is acquired and to neglect those
studies which tend to refine, temper and balance the mind.
The word discipline is perhaps the most difficult term in pedagogical
science to define. No attempt will be made to offer a definition here,
further than to state, that by discipline, the pupil has power of self-con-
trol, that by it, undivided attention can be concentrated to the subject un-
der consideration. By discipline, there is economy in mental work. The
mind is disciplined when it possesses the art of thinking. To many it
would seem absurd that it requires many years of systematic study, under
good instruction to read a book, or study a subject with pi-ofit and, there-
fore, with understanding, and yet, it is true. While it is claimed that the
study of the inflected languages, history and literature, pursued early in
life, is imperative for discipline, culture and scholarship, yet if the study
of higher mathematics and science be not subsequently pursued (and it
might be added in proper spirit), the work of preparation is incomplete.
It is a recognized fact that the body soon becomes accustomed to certain
movements which are, with sufficient practice, made almost unconsciously,
so the mind, with practice, soon becomes accustomed to certain processes
of reasoning.
Although the study of the humanities presents many aspects of thought,
yet the mind of the classical student runs in grooves. For him the study
of higher mathematics opens up a new field of thought as the processes of
reasoning are essentially dift'erent from those employed in the study of the
humanities.
Method and system in the processes of reasoning are characteristic of the
mathematical mind.
The study of chemistry is of importance as a means of cultivation of the
powers of observation, but, perhaps, the greatest value of the study of
chemistry, is the knowledge of the constitution of matter and the changes
it undergoes, producing new bodies. The cultured pupil reads here a won-
derful story. His mind dwells on the growth and consequent changes of
54
living languages, so rapid are these changes that a language is scarcely the
same each decade. Every period of history is stamped with changes. Na-
tions grow like plants, remain in the developed state a time, then they de-
cline and upon their ruins other nations spring up, likewise to perish.
The student reads in chemical science a similar story told in symbolic lan-
guage. Hitherto he knew but little of the laws of matter, he now learns
that matter and its laws form the basis of all. Were it not for the facts on
which the atomic theory is based and were it not that forces are evolved by
the reduction of organic matter there could be no mental process, in fact
no brain, no muscle. Now, while this expresses a phase of materialistic
philosophy yet the pupil who has a thorough training in the studies of the
humanities is not easily thrown oflf' his balance. By his long continued
training he recognizes the fact that the moral sense or sentiment is a po-
tent factor in nature, that man is not a selfish animal seeking to survive
that he may enjoy his sensuous pleasures. Although the age is becoming
more rationalistic, yet there never was a time when society was subject to
so much vaccination, frivolity and extremes. The craze for something new
or sensational precludes sober thought. We may as a nation excel all
others in inventions and conveniences and yet we may become a nation of
artisans and tradesmen. The pupil who is educated in the humanities,
and therefore has a disciplined mind, does not seek for wild theories, even
if founded on the results of modern research. Too many men, who repre-
sent the results of the new education are without convictions. The char-
acter of too many is reflected by current of popular opinion. The greatest
need of this age is a generation of men, cultured and disciplined, who have
convictions and therefore are not moved by the great waves of thought
which often sweep over the country like an epidemic.
The teacher of science, or higher mathematics, in a preparatory school,
should consider himself employed to build over, or bridge a chasm at the
end of a long line. He should consider his work a necessity to fill out, and
round up the intellectual and moral character of the pupils, under his
charge.
However diflferent his work may appear from the work of his colleague
who teaches the Greek language, or his colleague who studies, with his
classes, Shakspeare, Dante or Milton, his work is along the same line.
The teacher of science will benefit his pupils much more by confining his
instruction to general principles, whether he teaches elementary chemistry,
botany or zoology.
After having spent years of persistent study of languages, literature and
history, acquiring a knowledge of the inflections of verbs, memorizing the
definition of words and becoming familiar with the outline of all forms of
speech, with the political divisions of countries of the remote past — in
short, with the life of a world in its childhood and now to be introduced
into the world of the present, constitutes the most interesting period in
the life of the pupil. The teacher guides with watchful care the mental
processes awakened by the study of nature. He witnesses a wonderful
mental development, wonderful because it springs from a rich store-house
of knowledge and because the mental processes are new.
After all, the ultimate object of education is utilitarian in character.
The educated man or woman, who is a useful member of society, who is of
value to the state, must be of the world. He must be brought in intimate
relationship with the affairs of the present, and, for this purpose, the study
of science and mathematics is well adapted. A full degree of utilitarianism
is not wholly technical in kind. To become useful in any of the learned
professions all of the discipline afforded by classical and scientific training,
in addition to the training in the professional studies proper, is required.
If education is to be the i^afeguard of the nation, if it is to prevent the
enactment of extreme measures, if it is to act as the balance wheel in the
machinery of the social state, it must result in the development of all the
resources of the intellect as well as the sense of justice and love of hu-
manity.
The siGAR HEKT IN Indiana. Bv H. A. Huston.
Forms of nitrogen for wheat. By H. A. Huston.
A copi'Ei; a:mmonium oxide. By P. S. Baker.
Dl BENZYL CAEBINAMINE. By W. A. XOVES.
[ABSTRACT.]
[Published in the American Chemical Journal, 14, 225.]
Di-benzyl carbinamine was prepared by the reduction of the oxim of di-
benzyl-ketone by means of sodium and absolute alcohol.
The new base melts at 47° and boils at 330°. The chloride, Cj ■, Hj , NH2.
HCl, separates in compact crystals which melt at 205°. The chloro-plati-
nate, the nitrite and the di-benzyl carbinamine sulphocarbamimate of di-
/~1 TT "WW
benzyl carbinamine, q h^^ NH HS-^^^' ^^^^ ^^^° prepared.
B Especial interest attaches to the nitrite which is stable at ordinary tem-
peratures, and a dilute solution of which can be boiled with very slight de-
composition. In these respects the base is intermediate in its properties
between the "alicyclic" bases of Bamberger and the ordinary aliphatic
amines.— [Rose Polytechnic Institute, Dec. 1S91.
The character of well waters in a thickly popllated area. By W.
A. No YES.
[abstract.]
A table was shown giving the results of the analysis of a number of well-
waters taken from wells in various parts of the city of Terre Haute. The
amounts of free and of "albuminoid" ammonia in these well waters is us-
ually very low, but the amounts of chlorine and of nitrates, and especially
the latter, when compared with the amounts of the same substances found
in a well water in the country east of the city show that the waters of the
city wells are seriously contaminated with surface drainage. The fact that
a large proportion of the cases of typhoid fever and of dysentery (477 cases
out of 500 cases investigated) occur in families where well water and not
hydrant water is used for drinking purposes justifies the condemnation of
such well waters, even where the amount of organic matter in the water is
very small.— [Rose Polytechnic Institute, Dec. 1891.
0/
Laboratory and field work on the phosphate of alumina. By H. A.
HrsTON.
Recent methods for the determination of phosphoric aciu. By H. A.
HrsTON.
The digestibility of the pentose carp.ohydrates. By W. E. Stone.
The action of phenyl-hydrazin on rrRFUROi.. By W. E, Stone.
A graphical solution for equations of hiCtHer de(.ree. for both real
AND IMAGINAItY ROOTS. By A. S. HaTHAWAY.
•1. Preliminary on imaginary numbers.
The usual idea of imaginary numbers, as presented in our text books of
algebra, is that they are symbols introduced for the sake of making the
laws of algebra formally complete. It is implied in the name given to
these numbers that they have no actual meaning. This is a mistake. The
failure to mean anything in ordinary cases is not the fault of the numbers,
but results from the nature of the concrete quantities with which they are
generally used. Like difficulties are experienced with real numbers under
similar circumstances. Let us go briefly over the list of numbers and em-
phasize this point.
First, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, that denote repetitions of a concrete quan-
tity. If the quantity be incapable of the indicated repetition the result is
imaginary. Thus: Three spaces of four dimensions. This may be com-
prehensible to a different order of beings, but not to us.
Second, the numbers I, };, \, that denote partitions of a concrete quan-
tity. Nevertheless, a space of I a dimension, a school of 1 a student, are
impossibilities.
Third, the number — 1, This number must be used with quantities of
two kinds such that two of equal magnitude and different kinds give, when
*NOTE.— This preliminary ou the graphic representation of imaginary numbers was
not presented to the Academy. It is a simple and direct presentation of the subject
without the use of analytical geometry, and on that account may be interesting to
mathematicians; at the -^ame time, it places the whole article upon an elementary basis,
and makes it available to a larger circle of readers.
58
combined, zero result; e. g., assets and liabilities. In this case — 1 reverses
quality without altering magnitude, so that 1 -p ( — 1 ) = 0. But what is a
farm of — 80 acres? Imagine a farm that put with an SO acre farm gives no
land at all.
Fourth, the incommensurable numbers, e. g.. the ratio of a diagonal to a
side of a square. These require continuous quantitj'^, and their use with
quantity whose partitions are limited is impossible. What is a space of
|, '7 dimensions, a country with ^ '7 presidents, a man with i 7 dollars in
his pockets?
We recognize a number by what it can do with appropriate quantity to
operate upon, not by what it can not do with inappropriate quantity. The
interpretation of imaginary number requires quantity that has magnitude
and different qualities. These quantities, whether geometrical or physical,
may be represented by certain geometrical quantities called by Clifford
steps.
The step from a position A in space to another position B has length and
direction. Two steps are equal that have the same length, and the same
direction ; i. e., the opposite sides of a parallelogram taken in the same di-
rection are equal steps. The sum of any number of successive steps in
various directions is the step from the first point of departure to the last
point reached ; e. g., A B + B C + C D = A D. In particular the sum of
two successive steps along the sides of a parallelogram is equal to the step
along the diagonal. As the remaining sides in the parallelogram form
equal steps added in reverse order, we learn that the order of successive
steps in a sum may be changed without altering the sum.
Positive numbers operating on steps change lengths but not directions ;
— 1 reverses direction without altering length ; e. g., — 1 A B = B A. If x
be any real number we see by similar triangles that x ( A B + B C) = x A B
J-xBC.
A valuable analysis may be developed by the use of steps and real num-
bers only. From its simplicity, and its value in physical applications, it
ought to displace ordinary analytical geometry, in technical schools at
least. The main difticulty is the lack of a suitable text book.
Let us confine ourselves, now, to steps in the plane of the paper, and
consider the nature of the number that multiplying 0 A produces O B. It
must alter the length of O A into the length of O B ; this is the tensor fac-
tor, an ordinary positive number. It must turn O A thus lengthened into
OB; this is the versor factor; the angle of this turn, reckoned as positive
50
when it is counter clockwise, is the angle of the number. Thus, let (2, oO°)
denote a number that doubles length and turns 30° counter clockwise. Its
tensor is 2, its vei'sor is (1, 30°), and its angle is 30°.
After multiplying a step by (2, oO°) multiply the result by (:>, 20°).
Plainly the final step is (6, 50°) times the first step. This example of a
product enables us to see at once that :
The tensor of a product equals the product of the tensors of the factors ;
and the angle of a product equals the sum of the angles of the factors.
Hence the factors may be combined in any order without altering their
product.
The definition of a sum of two numbers p and q is that (p + q) O B=:
p O B - q 0 B. ■• Replacing O B by r O A we have that (p — q) r = p r + q r;
and since the factors of a product have been shown to be interchangeable,
therefore r(p-i-q) = {p — q)r=rp + rq.
We thus find that these versi-tensors follow the ordinary laws of alge-
braic combination. To identify them with imaginaries, notice that (1, 90°)-
= (1, 180°) = — 1 = (1, —90°)-, These two square roots of —1 are nega-
tives of each other, for —1 (1, —90°) = (1, 180°) (1, —90°) = (1, 90°). So
— 1 has three cube roots, — 1 and (1, =b 60°); and so on.
It is convenient to represent versi-tensors by steps. Some step O A is
taken to represent unity ; and then any other step represents its ratio to
the unit step O A. Thus, if 0 B, O B^ are steps of the same length as 0 A,
and make angles of 60° and — ()0° respectively with O A, they represent the
imaginary cube roots of — 1. AVe may use geometry to put these roots in
the standard form x y i, where x and y are real numbers and i = (1 , 90°).
Let BBi meet O A in C; then OC represents, or say =, i, and CB=
i l/7 i = — C Bi ; and from O B = O C ^ C B, O B^ = 0 C + C B^ we have
(1, ± 60°) = i ± ^, 7 i.
This example just given makes it plain that any imaginary number may
be put in the form x ^ y i, in one and only one way ; and from the right
triangle involved, we also see that the tensor of x + y i is v x- + y-, the
so-called modulus in imaginaries. It is easy to show by geometry how it
is that every equation with real or imaginary co-efficients has at least one
root, and therefore just as many roots as its degree and no more, or even to
show the whole directly. ♦ In fact, all the fundamental properties of imag-
"To see that this does detiiie the sum, try it for the case of p = {2, 30 ), q= (2, 150 ),
which gives p -r q= (2. 90' i. Also compare with the verification that 2-j-i= 5.
(50
iuaries may be made visible realities rather than symbolic results based
upon certain assumptions.
When dealing with steps not limited to the plane of the paper, then
( O A, n°) may be taken as the symbol of a number that turns any step that
is perpendicular to O A, n° round'O A as axis, counter clockwise to an ob-
server at A, and lengthens in the ratio of the length of O A to the unit
length. This is a quaternion. Quaternions whose angles are o° or 1S0°
are ordinary positive and negative numbers, and are called scalars. Qua-
ternions whose angles are 90° are called vectors. The square of a vector is
a negative scalar. The ordinary rules of algebra hold except that factors
are not interchangeable without altering the product. A quaternion, also,
cannot multiply a step that is not perpendicular to its axis. It can be geo-
metrically represented only by two steps. A vector (O A, 90°) or briefly
(O A) may be represented by the step ( ) A. The value of this representa-
tion is expressed by the equations :
(OB)4-(OA)=-(OB-rOA)
(OB) : ( 0 A ) - OB : O A.
The calculus of quaternions is superior for all purposes of investigation to
analytical geometry, and as its results can be immediately turned into ana-
lytical formulas, it is likely to be very much used and developed in the
future. It is especially valuable in mathematical physics. An account of
the -system by Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, the inventor, was first presented
to the Royal Irish Academy in 1843. The first book upon the subject,
" Hamilton's Lectures," appeared in 185o.
II.
Let a x^ r b x^ + c x + d = o be an equation with general imaginary
co-efficients. Divide this by x — r: the quotient is a x- + (a r -f b) x +
(a r- -r b r + c) and the remainder is a r ' -j- b r- -[- c r + d. The co-effi-
cients of the quotient, and final remainder are best found by synthetic di-
vision, which shows the general method of forming each co-efficient by
multiplying the last by r and adding the next coefficient of the original
equation. The process is identical with the reduction of the compound
number (a, b, c, d) whose radix is r. The test of a root is that the remain-
der should be zero.
The steps that represent these numbers may be constructed as follows :
Take in the plane of the paper steps O A, A B, B C, C D, representing
the numbers a, b, c, d. Take any point A', and let A' k: 0 A be the r we
Gl
are to try in the equation for x. To find the result of the trial, construct
the triangle A^ B' B similar to O A' A, and then the triangle B' C^ C, also
similar to O A' A. We have O A = a, A' A = a r, and hence A' B = A^ A
+ AB = ar+b; also by similar triangles, B^ B = r A^ B --= a r- -{- b r, and
hence B^ C = B^ B + B C = a r- + b r + c. Again by similar triangles,
C^ C = r (a r2 + b r + c) = a r3 ^ b r^ + c r and hence C D = C C + C D
= a r^ + b r^ + c r + d, the remainder sought ; moreover, the co-eflacients
of the quotient are represented by O A, A/ B, B^ C. The problem is to so
choose the first point A' that the last vertex C of the series of similar tri-
angles O A' A, A^ B' B, B' C C, shall coincide with D : then A' A : O A is
a root of the given equation. With the ability to construct a series of sim-
ilar triangles with ease, a position for A^ may be approximated to without
much difficulty. Observe that O A^, A^ B^, W C^ are equi-mulliples of
O A A' B, B^ C. This follows from the similar triangles 0 A' A, A^ B^ B,
B' C C, which give O A^ : O A = A' B' : A^ B = B^ C : B' C both as to
tensor and angle parts. Hence the circuit O A^ B' C represents the quo-
tient on the new scale in which 0 A/ instead of O A represents the first
co-eflBcient a.
If the co-eflScients of the given equation are all real numbers and only
the real roots are sought, the method fails, since A^ must be taken on 0 A
produced giving no triangle 0 A' A. In such a case, put x = -^— where m
is a given versor, say (1, 60°), or (1, 90°); the equation becomes ;
a z^ + m b z- + m- c z + m^ d ^ o.
The figure O, A, B, C, D that represents the co-efficients of this equation
will have equal angles at A, B, C, viz.: the supplement of the angle of m
(since a, b, c, d are real numbers, their angles are O or 180°). We are to
seek for roots of this equation whose angles are, angle of m or angle of m—
180°. (Since z = mx, therefore angle z = angle m ^ angle x.) Thus A'
must be taken on A B produced ; and since the angles at A, B, C, are
equal, it follows that the similar triangles required will have their vertices
B', C^ on B C, C D, produced, so that the construction of these triangles is
simplified, e. g., to find B^ draw from A^ a line making with O A^ an angle
equal to the angle A; that line meets B C in B'. The broken line O A^B' C
has its angles A^, B^ equal to the angles A, B, and its vertices A', B', C in
the sides A B, B C, C D; trials of this construction must be made until C
co-incides with D, when A^ A : m O A is the real root of the equation in x.
Taking m=(l, 90°), this is Lill's construction for the real roots of an
equation with real co-eflScients. Lill has devised an instrument for facili-
62
tating his construction, which is described as follows (Cremona Graph.
Statics (Beare), p. "ti):
"The apparatus consists of a perfectly plane circular disc, which may be
made of wood ; upon it is pasted a piece of paper ruled in squares. In the
center of the disc, which should remain fixed, stands a pin, around which
as a spindle another disc of ground glass of equal diameter can turn. Since
the glass is transparent, we can with the help of the ruled paper under-
neath, immediately draw upon it the circuit corresponding to the given
equation. If we now turn the glass plate, the ruled paper assists the eye
in finding the circuit which determines a root. A division upon the cir-
cumference of the ruled disc enables us by means of the deviation of the
first side of the first circuit from the first side of the second, to immediately
determine the magnitude of the root. For this purpose the first side of the
circuit corresponding to the equation must be directed to the zero point of
the graduation."
Linkages might be found to perform mechanically what must be done
by successive approximations in the method above, viz.: to bring the last
vertex C/ into co-incidence with D. Kempe has given some linkages for a
diflTerent construction. [See Messenger of Mathematics, Vol. 4, 1875, p. 124.]
III.
The following constructions are given as illustrations:
(a.) Roots of 2x'- + 4x -^ 1 = o. [Fig. i.]
As the co-eflBcients are all real it is preferable, and for real roots neces-
sary, to transform the equation by putting x = -^, m = (1, 90°). The
equation becomes 2 zH -^ m z + m^ -= O, and 0 A = 2, A B = 4 m, B C ==
m3 = _ 1. If A' A : () A is a root of this equation then, dividing by m,
we find A/ A : m O A «s a root of the original equation. If this is real A'
must lie on A B, produced if necessary. Ilemember that A^ is such that
O A' A, A^ C B are similar triangles and we see that the angle O A^ C is a
right angle when A' lies on A B. Hence the circle on O C as diameter cuts
A B in'the sought points A', A'^. From the figure the roots A' A : m O A,
A'^ A : m O A are approximately — . 3 and —1.7.
(b.) Rootsof 2x2 + 2x + 4 = 0. [Fig. ii.]
Here 0A = 2, AB = 2m, BC = 4m2 ... —4. The circle on O C as di-
ameter does not cut A B and the roots are imaginary. Since 0 A^ A, A'' C B
are similar, therefore A' is equally distant from A and B, and that distance
is mean proportional between O A and C B. A circle with this mean pro-
portional as radius and center at A or B will therefore cut the perpendicu-
lar erected at the middle point (M) of A B in the sought points A', A'\
The circle with center at M and cutting the circle on 0 C as diameter at
()8
right angles also passes through these points. Conceiving the step m. O A
drawn from A' we see that M A and A' M, kf^ M are the real and imagi-
nary components of the roots. The roots given by k/ and K'^ are by the
figure — 5 — 1.3m and — } -f- 1.3m.
(c.) Real root of 2 x^ + 4 x- -f 8 -f 4 = o.
We have O A = 2, AC = 4m, BC = 8m2= —8, CD = 4m3 = — 4m.
The circuit O A' W D was drawn by aid of transparent paper turned round
a pin with cross section paper underneath, after the manner of Lill's
wooden and ground glass discs. The root, A' A : m O A = tan k.' O A,
may be read ofT from the cross section paper to several decimal places. It
is here — .64....
O A^ B^ D is the circuit for the quadratic equation that gives the remain-
ing pair of roots of the cubic. The circle on 0 D as diameter will not cut
A^ B' so that these roots are imaginary.
On .soj[e theorems of ixtec;katioxs in qcatekxioxs. By A. S. Hatha-
way.
There are certain identities among volume, surface and line integrals of a
quaternion function q=/(h) that include as special cases the well known
theorems of Green and Stokes, that are so often employed in mathematical
physics. These indentities were first demonstrated by Prof. Tait by the aid
of the physical principles usually employed in forming the so-called "Equa-
tion of Continuity." [See Tait's Quatermous, third ed., ch. XII J.]
If dh dih,d2h be non-coplanar differentials of the vector h, the theorems
may be written :
(1) — /fJSdhdihd2h.~q=/J V dhdjh.q
(The surface integral extends over the boundary of the volume integral
and Vdhdih is an outward facing element of the surface.)
(2) /fV (Vdhdih.~).q=/dhq
(The line integral extends over the boundary of the surface integral in
the positive direction as given by the vector areas V dhdjh.)
These theorems are analogous to the elementary theorem,
(3) /dq=qB — qj or in quaternion notation,
•^ A
— /Sdh'v.q=q
64
It has not been noticed, so far as I am aware that these identities are
equivalent to simpler identities pertaining to the operator V, as follows :
(1)' Sdhdihd2h.V=Vdihd2hSdhV+Vd2hdhSdih\7+VdhdihSd2hV
(2/ V(Vdhdih.V)=dhSdih^— dihSdhV
In fact (1) and (2) become these (into q) when applied to the elements of
volume and surface just as (3) becomes SdhV=di (into q) when applied to
the element of length;
To identify (1) and (1)^, let h be the vector of the mean point of the par-
allelopiped whose edges are dhjdih.djh. The outward vector areas "of the
two faces parallel to djh.dah are — VdihdahjVdjhdoh, and the correspond-
ing values of q are q+JSdh.V-q, q— iSdhV-q; so that sum of the vector
areas into q is — VdihdohSdhV-q- Similarly for the other faces.
So to identify (2) and (2)', the line elements bounding the parallelogram
dh,dih are dh,dih, — dh, — djh, and the corresponding values of q are
q+^Sdih^.q, q+oSdh^y.q, q — iSd,h\7.q, q— ^Sdh^Z-qandthe sum dhq is
dhSd.hy.q— dihSdhy.q.
To obtain (1) irom (1)^ divide the given volume into infinitesimal parallel-
epipeds by any three systems of surfaces, one of which includes the bound-
ary of the volume. In summing the terms (1)^ the introduced interior sur-
faces between adjacent elements of volume are gone over twice with the
vector areas oppositely directed. These surfaces balance one another,
therefore, and may be dropped from the summation, leaving the volume
integral equal to the surface integral over the boundary of the volume
integral.
We see also that if any discontinuity in q or its derivatives exists within
the given volume that the proper way to overcome this is to surround the
discontinuity by surfaces and so exclude the discontinuity. Usually this
alterg only the surface over which the surface integral extends without
aflFecting the volume integral.
Similarly (2) is obtained from summation of (2)^ and, as every student of
integral calculus is aware, (3) is obtained from dq in a similar manner.
The sectioxs ok the anchor king. By W. Y. Brown.
65
Note on the early history of the potential functions. By A. S. Hath-
away.
This is to call attention to an injustice that has been done by Todhunter
in his "History of the Theory of Attractions" in assigning to Laplace in-
stead of Lagrange the honor of the introduction of the potential function
into dynamics. This injustice has been perpetuated by various encyclope-
dias, notably the Encyclopedia Britannica, and by leading text books, such
as Thompson and Tait's Natural Philosophy, and Maxwell's Electricity and
Magnetism. In an article in Vol. 1 No. 3 of the Bulletin of the New York
Mathematical Society (Dec. 1891) I have shown conclusively that Lagrange
anticipated Laplace by at least ten years in investigations on the potential.
Laplace's first announcement is fixed by Todhunter as between 1783 and
1785, and this was merely through the paper of another, Legendre. La-
grange on the other hand, wrote distinctly upon that subject in 1773, 1777
and 1780 ; and in the last paper the notation is the same as that used by La-
place three or four years later. There is also evidence that Lagrange had
begun to develop the idea of the potential as early as 17G3, in connection
with his celebrated generalized equations of motion.
Some geometrical propositions. By C. A. Waldo.
Notes on numerical radices. By C. A. Waldo.
Some suggested changes in notation. By R. L. Green.
An adjustment for the control magnet on a mirror galvanometer. By
J. P. Naylor.
A combined Wheatstone's bridge and potentiometer. Bv J. p. Naylok.
Histeresis curves for mitis and other cast iron. By J. E. MoouEandE.
M. TiNGLEY.
5
Heating op a diki^ectiuc in a condenser — I'reliminary note. By Albeki
P. Carman.
PrELIMINAHY notes on the (4E0L0GY OF DeAUHORN county. By A. .1. BlONEY.
The geological formations in Dearborn county are the lower Silurian
which is found in almost every part of the county, the upper silurian occu-
pying only a small area in the northwest part of the county and the glacial
deposit of the post-tertiary times. Blue limestone is the characteristic rock.
The rock is abundantly supplied with fossils, much of it being composed
almost entirely of brachiopods, corals and other closely related fossils. On
this account they are of little value for building purposes, the chief use be-
ing for foundation stones. Some of the hardest will weather very percep-
tibly in only a few years. Along the railroad at Moore's Hill, the rocks are
so easily disintegrated that the cliflFs appear more like immense shell banks
than true rocks.
In the northern part of the county, near the upper silurian outcrop, the
rock is much harder and is quarried in considerable quantities, and is re-
garded as a very fine quality of stone. It, however, is not equal to that
which is found in Ripley and Decatur counties. Where there is no drift
the soil is marly — that is, composed of lime, clay, sand, etc. In the greater
part of the county and especially in the western section there is much clay ;
on the fiats this is very tenacious. In the eastern part of the county along
the Ohio drift deposits are very prominent. There is some drift at New-
town, near Lawrenceburgh, but the most important deposits are just outside
the county, in Ohio county, and where it is about fifty feet thick and three
miles below Aurora on the Kentucky side, above and below Wolper creek.
About five miles further to the south in Boone county, Ky., still more drift
is to be found. This last deposit is about on a level with the highest part
of the cliff, that is, 1,000 feet. The drift at the mouth of Wolper creek,
called Split-rock, is an immense mass of conglomerate fully 100 feet thick
and nearly 400 feet lower than that five miles to the south. There is one
perpendicular clifi" that measures 7.'^ feet high, and above this there is a rise
of about 20 feet more, and how deep it extends no one has investigated.
About one- fourth mile to the south, on the opposite side of a small creek,
is still more deposit and one cliff is even higher than the one just described.
07
In the lower part of this drift, which is finer than the upper drift, gold
has been found, more particularly, however, on the Indiana side.
The fossil remains in the county are rich, and a fuller report may be given
at some future time. Only a few can receive our attention in this paper.
Near Aurora and Lawrenceburgh numerous bones of the mastodon and
mammoth have been found. The bones of a sloth and the skull of a black
bear have also been found, and a few other mammals. Brachiopods, crin-
oids, trilobites, mollusks, bryozoa, corals, etc., are found in great abundance.
The trilobites are not so numerous as they used to be, for most of the speci-
mens have been collected — that is, the surface specimens. While exploring
a mound four miles north of Moore's Hill several large specimens of the
coral, tetradium fibratum were found. One of them required four men to
place it in the wagon. One little ravine seemed to be literally filled with
it. Prof. Gorby pronounced these the finest specimens of the kind in the
state. They are now in the museum at Moore's Hill College.
The cystidiaxs of Jefferson couxtv, Ind. — By Geo. C. Hubbard.
These fossils form an order of the crinoids, and are most abundant in the
Niagara group. About thirty species, up to this time, have been found in
Jefferson county, which proves it to be the richest locality in this respect
in North America, if not in the world. Fifteen new species will be described
and figured in the 17th report of the Geological Survey of Indiana, most of
which, if not all, were collected by Mr. John Hammel. Those found be-
long to the genera holocystites, caryocrinus and allocystites. These fossils
are uniformly found in shale or soft limestone, near the bottom of the Ni-
agara group. Near Madison few have been found and these are in poor
condition; but along Big creek, in the northern part of the county, they
are more numerous and are well preserved. On two or three occasions I
had the pleasure of accompanying Mr. Hammel to Big creek. Numerous
other fossils were found, but few cystidians. If an experienced collector
finds two or three good specimens in a day's search he may consider him-
self fortunate. A few are found in the debris at the base of the low cliffs or
in the bed of the creek ; more are obtained, however, by moving along on
hands and knees and closely examining the various strata known to con-
tain them, as well as the bottom of the projecting rocks above, for they are
often found adhering to the lower surface of certain strata.
68
Hudson rivek fossils of Jefferson cointv, Indiana. By Geo. C. Huh-
BABD.
In the Geological Report of Indiana for 1874, there appeared a list of
Hudson River fossils prepared by Dr. W. J. S, Cornett, containing the
names of seventy-six species and varieties. They were classified as ^jfon-
tx, encrinites, parasitic corals, unhrtlvcs, orthis and trilobites. Among the "or-
this" were modiolopsis modiolaris, a lamellibranch, and streptelasma cor-
niculum, a cup coral. Tetradium fibratum, a columnar coral, was placed
under "univalves." Young and old of the same species were sometimes
classed as two species. Strophomena nutans, which has never been found
in Indiana, was included in the list. These and similar errors, together
with the incompleteness of the list, call for a second attempt.
The species included in this second list have been collected chiefly by
myself in the vicinity of Madison. Most of the crinoids, however, were
named from Mr. Jno. Hammel's extensive collection.
The list, which is too long for an abstract, contains:
Plantse 8 species.
Porifera 6 "
Anthozoa 25 "
Crinoidea 28
Stellerida 0 "
Bryozoa 14 "
Brachiopoda 32 "
Pteropoda 3
Gasteropoda 20 "
Cephalopoda 18 "
Lamellibranchiata 26 "
Annelida • 4 "
Crustacea 8 "
Total 198
Among these some ten or twelve are believed to be undescribed species.
The upper limit op the lower Silurian at Madison, Ind. — By George C.
Hubbard.
The upper strata of the bluffs along the Ohio river belong to the Niagara
group, and the lower to the Hudson river or Cincinnati group ; but the
exact line of demarcation between them has long been an unsettled ques-
tion. The importance of this parting is recognized when we remember
69
that it exists wherever the Silurian rocks are exposed, and that here in an
altitude of more than 20,000 feet of the earth's crust, representing a period
of untold ages, the greatest break in animal life occurred ; but one-fourth
of the genera represented in the lower silurian being found in the upper
Silurian, while the species are almost entirely new.
In Ripley county, along Graham creek, this parting is easily determined
by means of the abundant and well preserved fossils, but at ]\Iadison this is
not the case. Fossils are easily found from the level of the river to a height
of 300 feet, where the favistella stillata bed outcrops. Above this for sev-
enty-five feet the strata are nearly non- fossiliferous. At three hundred
seventy-five feet above the Ohio the "cliff rock" outcrops, which contains
characteristic Niagara fossils.
In 1859 Prof. Richard Owen, after a hasty examination, stated the favis-
tella reef to be the limit. A few years later Prof. Eaton discovered tetra-
dium fibratum, a Hudson river fossil, six feet higher. Subsequently, Dr. W.
J. S. Cornett claimed that he had discovered a 10 i,nch stratum about fifty
feet above the favistella reef containing orthis occidentalis and other Hud-
son river fossils, and announced this stratum as the last of the lower Si-
lurian.
In 1889 I commenced collecting fossils, being unacquainted with what
has been stated just above. Occasionally at the head of ravines I found
fossils in fallen rocks which were undescribed in any of my books on pa-
laeontology. Some were sent to S. A. Miller, of Cincinnati, who returned
them, saying they were new species. This made me eager to ascertain the
position from which the rock bearing them came. Mr. John Hammel and
I commenced an investigation and discovered that it is situated near the
summit of the precipices forming the various falls west of Madieon. Imme-
diately above we found a hard, durable salmon-colored stone which, on ac-
count of its greater resistance to decomposition, shielded and concealed the
stratum beneath. The upper stratum was found to contain certain Niagara
fossils, and later investigation has shown that there is an abrupt palfeon-
tological break between the two strata, corresponding to the cycles of time
when the lower silurian rocks were elevated above the surface of the ocean
and subjected to the disintegrating action of the elements.
By comparing the upper stratum, according to our determination, with
that selected by Dr. Cornett at the stone quarry near his residence, they
were found to be identical. Hence, to this gentleman belongs the honor of
the discovery, our labors simply confirming his conclusion.
7()
The only facts which militate against the validity of the limit assigned
are that a survey of the two strata up and down the river for several miles
shows them to be conformable ; but as stated above, in Ripley county the
fifty feet of non-fossiliferous rock is absent, proving non-conformability,
and that the fossils, with few exceptions, are unlike others found in the
Hudson river group.
The Kankakke kiveh and pure water for Northwestern Indiana axd
Chicago — By J. L. Campbell.
The Kankakee river is the unsolved engineering problem of Indiana.
How to secure the proper drainage of the vast basin known as the Kan-
kakee marshes is a question which has not had a practical answer— chiefly
on account of the expense necessary to carry out any of the proposed plans.
A new interest in this question may be developed in connection with the
problem of an adequate supply of pure water for the new cities in north-
western Indiana and of Chicago, beyond our borders.
The fact exists, although vigorously denied by citizens of Chicago, that
pure water has not been obtained by the tunnel system into Lake Michigan,
and it is more than probable that further extension of the system will fail
to furnish pure water, and after the most costly experiments or repeated
disappointments the city will seek its water supply from other sources.
The effort to keep the lake water pure by artificial drainage of the city
into the Illinois river may be partially successful — but even this is doubt-
ful— and at best changes will be enormously expensive, — literally an up-hill
business.
It will not be denied that a vast territory around Chicago cannot be in-
cluded in the artificial drainage system, and this territory will continue to
be drained into Lake Michigan.
The mouth of the tunnel, whether located two or ten miles from the
shore, is the source of an artificial stream toward which currents must tend
from all directions. Into these currents the impure drainage of the city
will be carried, and the water supply will be contaminated.
The extension of the tunnels doubtless will furnish less impure water,
but certainly not the pure supply necessary for the health of a great city.
The practical (luestions connected with the question of the water supply
of a great city are : —
71
(1) Purity of water.
(2) Adequacy of supply.
(3) Elevation.
(4) Cost of construction.
The purpose of this paper is to show that the Kankakee river furnishes
a satisfactory answer to these questions.
The river takes its rise in the marsh land near South Bend, in St. Joseph
county, Indiana, at an elevation of seven hundred and twenty feet above
sea level, and by an extremely crooked course through Indiana, enters Illi-
nois a few miles east of Momence. The length of the river in Indiana is
nearly two hundred and fifty miles.
According to a survey made by the author of this paper for the State of
Indiana in 1882 this channel could be reduced for better drainage to less
than one hundred miles.
The chief tributary of the Kankakee is Yellow river, which rises in the
eastern part of Marshall county.
The country adjacent to the river is a broad plain, varying in width from
one to twenty miles, along the borders of which are sand ridges which give
to the region the designation of the Kankakee ^'alley, and which have pro-
duced the erroneous impression that the marsh is a low irreclaimable
swamp, whereas the fact is that it is an elevated plateau with a mean level
of ninety feet above Lake Michigan and six hundred and seventy feet above
the ocean.
The plateau has a slope westward of one foot per mile.
The water of the Kankakee is remarkably pure and clear, and is regarded
by all who have used it as exceptionally healthful.
Iron is found in solution, which doubtless adds value to the water for
general purposes.
The bed of the Kankakee and of its tributaries generally is fine sand and
gravel, and the underlying strata throughout the valley are fine sand in-
creasing to coarse gravel. Clay beds are rare and there is no stone along
the stream throughout Indiana. The overlying loam varies in thickness
from a few inches to several feet, and the surface generally is an unre-
claimed marsh in which coarse grass, wild rice and weeds grow in the great-
est luxuriance.
The crookedness of the stream is readily explained by the instability of
the sandy strata through which it flows — the twelve inches of surface slope
being reduced to four inches, measured in the channel of the stream.
The sandy substratum makes the entire valley a vast filtering basin — a
great lake filled with sand and gravel, whence issues the pure and limpid
water of the Kankakee river.
This is a satisfactory answer to the first and most important question con-
cerning a city water supply.
The second question is the adequacy of supply.
The most convenient point on the Kankakee for starting a pipe line to Chi-
cago or any of the new cities in the northwestern part of Indiana is in
township 33 north, range ('•> west, not far from the boundary line between
Porter 'and Lake counties.
The drainage area of the basin above this point is about twelve hundred
square miles, which is four times the area of the Croton basin whence is
derived the water supply of New York.
The sluggish flow of the river, due to the fall of only four inches to the
mile, substantially makes this basin of over a thousand square miles a re-
servoir more than sufficient for the greatest demands, and satisfactorily an-
swers the second general question concerning a city supply.
In answer to the third and fourth general questions, the state survey of
1882 shows that the eleva'ion of the initial point already designated as the
proper beginning place for a pipe line is seventy-three (73) feet above lake
Michigan, or sixty-nine feet above the Illinois Central depot on the lake
front of Chicago, or fifty- one feet above the railway station at Toleston.
The distance from the initial point to Chicago is less than fifty miles and
to Toleston twenty-five miles.
The sand ridge on the north side of the Kankakee has a probable altitude
of fifty feet, and in the absence of a survey it cannot be stated whether it
would be better to excavate through this ridge for the pipe line or to pump
the water to the summit. If it is found feasible to excavate for the line a
a flow of water by gravity alone can be secured from the Kankakee to the
lake front in Chicago, with a fall of one foot per mile, into the receiving
reservoir twenty-three feet above the level of the street. The first Croton
aqueduct has a fall of forty-seven feet in thirty-eight miles.
If it is found more expedient to pump the water to the summit it is pos-
sible that an open channel along the surface of the ridge could be con-
structed so as to" reduce the closed pipe line to twenty- five miles and to de-
liver the water in Chicago with a standpipe pressure of from fifty to seventy-
five feet.
These questions cannot be satisfactorily answered until after a careful
survey has been made.
The importance of this enterprise cannot easily be overestimated, and
the cost of the work, even if it should reach millions, will be insignificant
in comparison with the results to be obtained.
Explorations of Mt. Orizaba. By J. T. Scovell.
Variations in the dynamical conditions during the deposit of the kock
BEDS at Richmond, Ind. By Joseph Moore.
The relation of the keokuk groups of Montgomery county with the
typical locality. By C. S. Beachler.
Comments on the descriptions of species. By C. S. Beachler.
On a deposit of vertebrate fossils in Colorado. By Amos W. Butler.
Topographical evidence of a great and sudden diminution of the an-
cient water supply of the Wabash river. Bv J. T. Campbell.
Source of supply to medial morains probably from the bottom of the
GLACIAL CHANNEL. Bv .J. T. CaMPBELL.
74
Notes o\ a Kansas species of buckeye. By W. A. Keli-ekman,
pjrotographing certain' natural objects without a camera. by w. a.
Kellerman.
On the occurrence of certain western plants at Columbus, ()hio. By
Aug. D, Selby.
[abstract].
It is my purpose in this paper to point out two features of the flora in
the vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, which combine to present in it a represen-
tation of western plants ; as a result of the one, we find in that locality the
beginning of western species, and by the other are to note the compara-
tively recent introduction of a good many far-western and southwestern
plants, some of which appear there, perhaps, for the first time east of the
Mississippi river.
In Central Ohio there is a marked blending of eastern and western spe-
cies of plants ; east and southeast of Columbus but a short distance will
bring one into the typical Appalachian flora, while to the westward the
entire half of the state is underlain by the great limestone formations and
with the outcrop of the corniferous limestone, the first to be met with
traveling westward, plants of a well-marked western range begin to appear.
This feature was referred to by Prof, J. S. Newberry* in 1859, He points
out a peculiar facies due (in part) to the presence of a number of the prai-
rie plants of the west here on the eastern limits of their range.
The following species may be cited as illustrating this fact, all occurring
near Columbus :
Erysimum asperum, Trifolium stoloniferum, Cornus asperifolia.
Aster azureus, Aster Shortii, Helianthus doronicoides.
Camassia Fraseri, Bouteloua racemosa.
But it is to the presence of a number of distinctly western and south-
western plants introduced by wholesale, as it were, that more particular at-
tention is directed.
Columbus, in common with all railroad centers through which shipment
Ohio Agricultural Kcport, 1859, p. 210.
lO
of products from the west regularly occurs, is in a position to receive the
plants thus dropped. Artemisia biennis and Verbena stricta have been
received by this means ; the latter is especially abundant around the rail-
road intersections. In addition to this opportunity, an exceptional one, as
it would appear, is presented by the permanent quarters of a circus and
menagerie (Sells Brothers').
On the grounds about these winter quarters near Columbus, about
twenty species of plants have been introduced and more than half of them
have not appeared elsewhere in the vicinity. The range and distribution
of the plants found is such as to increase the interest attaching to their ap-
pearance. The seeds were evidently brought upon the return at the close
of the season, carried in cars, cages, wagons, or preserved in the intestines
of animals. The litter of cars and cages seems to the writer the most likely
vehicle for the seeds of the larger number of plants found.
Below are the species found on the circus grounds and appearing by
.some agency connected therewith ; those introduced independently at
other points in the county are marked with an asterisk ; accompanying
certain ones the range of the species is copied from the Manual or Synop-
tical Flora :
Callirrhoe involucrata, Gray. Minnesota to Texas.
Erodium cicutarium, L'Her.
Clarkia pulchella, Pursh. Western Montana and westward.
Amphiachyris dracunculoides, Nutt. Plains, Kansas and southward.
Aster pauciflorus, Nutt. Kansas and west (?).
Artemisia annua L.
Dysodia chrysanthemoides. Lag.®
Gutierrezia Texana, Torr & Gray. Sterile plains throughout Texas.
Helenium microcephalum, DC. Southern Texas and adjacent Mexico.
Helenium nudiflorum, Nutt.
Helenium tenuifolium, Nutt. West of Mississippi river.
Parthenium Hysterophorus, L. Throughout Eastern and Central Texas,
also east of Mississippi river.
Solanum rostratum, Dunal. Plains of Nebraska to Texas, spreading east-
ward.
Verbena angustifolia, Michx.
Monarda citriodora, Cerv. Nebraska to Texas.
Plantago Patagonica, Jacq., var aristata, Gray.*
Amarantus spinosus, L.
Ohenopodium ambrosioides, L. var. anthelminticum, Gray.
Croton capitatus, Michx.
Avena fatua, L.
Of those here much beyond their assigned limits, three show decidedly
weedy tendencies. They are Solamum rostratum, Dysodia chrysanihem-
oides and Parthenium Hysterophorus. The two last named promise to
become permanent additions to our flora, undesirable though they may be.
The circus is at present in Australia and we shall watch with interest to
secure anything that may be brought from there.
Biological surveys. By Johx M. Coulter.
Some stran(;e developments of stomata upon Carya alka caused by
Phylloxera. By D. A. Owen.
[abstractJ.
Upon the upper side of the leaf of Carya alba are found some hemispher-
ical and conical galls produced by the little insect Phylloxera. These galls
are the receptacles for the eggs, or nest of these insects.
The stomata in leaves uninjured are all found upon the lower surface.
But in those containing galls there are seldom any stomata found in the
epidermis just beneath the gall. The upper side is entirely free from sto-
mata with the exception of the gall itself. In no case was any gall exam-
ined in which stomata were not found upon the upper surface. And with
but one or two exceptions no stomata were found upon the under surface
just beneath the gall.
Surrounding and within the opening of the gall upon the under side of
the leaf minute hairs were found, all extending outward as if to guard the
opening against the entrance of an enemy.
There seems, from the above, to be an intimate relation existing here be-
tween the plant and animal.
Preliminary paper ox the flora of Henry' county, Ind. By T. B. Red-
ding and Mrs. Rosa REoniNG Mikels.
A NEW COMPOUND MICROTOME. By GeO. C. HuBBARD.
Wishing to prepare some slides exhibiting the structure of various ani-
mal tissues and organs, but having no microtome, I made one of wood
chiefly, at a cost of thirty cents and two or three days' labor.
The principle of the machine is to prepare sections by quickly forcing the
tissue, supported on a carrier attached to the circumference of a 12-inch
wheel, across the edge of a razor, which is brought automatically a slight
distance nearer the tissue at each rotation of the wheel.
The base of the machine is a heavy board about thirteen inches long by
eight in width. At the middle of each side inflexible standards are erected
and adjustable bearings provided, the centre of the opening in each being
six and one half inches above the board. In these bearings rests the axis
of the 12-inch wheel, which is turned by means of a crank.
The support for the tissue consists of a round brass disc of any conve-
nient size attached at its centre to one end of a short cylindrical rod. This
rod fits into a corresponding orifice extending through the middle of a half-
cleft sphere, which fits loosely in a corresponding socket in the circumfer-
ence of the wheel. One side (the one opposite to the automatic feeder) of
this socket is made adjustable by removing a round bit of wood and in-
serting in its stead a concave disc, which is attached to the short end of a
straight lever extending down the side of the wheel to near the axis. A
screw passing loosely through the lever about an inch from the center of
the disc into the wheel serves as a fulcrum. Let this lever be called A.
The long arm of A is moved by means of a circular wedge turning upon
the round end of the wheel's axis. The thick part of the wedge is allowed
to project four or five inches beyond the line of the circumference of the
circle, and provided with a knob, thus forming a second lever, B, to which
the power is applied. Instead of B and the wedge, a thumb-screw may be
screwed through the long end of A, its end turning against the side of the
wheel.
When the tissue has been fastened to the brass disc in the usual way, its
round support is thrust into the opening of the ball. The carrier is turned
and bent in any direction and pushed out or in until tne tissue is in the
right position with regard to the razor. A slight force exerted on the knob
of B moves B forward thus causing a thicker part of the circular wedge to
pass between the wheel and the long arm of A, which forces the concave
disc at the other arm against the half-cleft ball, thus causing it to grip firm-
ly the tissue support. If a thumb-screw be used, it must be turned three
or four times to produce the same eflect.
78
At one end of the board forming the base of the machine is fastened, by
means of two hinges, a perpendicular piece of wood six and one-half inches
long, ciit so that there are three arms above. Each of two of these has an
opening at its upper extremity suitable for receiving the razor, and is pro-
vided with a set-screw for clamping the razor.
To the third arm is attached a nut in which work the threads of a bolt,
which extends horizontally to near the axis. The head of the bolt is at-
tached to the centre of a wheel some four or five inches in diameter. The
bolt now forms the axis of this wheel and must be supported at the wheel
by an unyielding bearing. Turning this wheel once in the right direction
pulls the razor forward a distance equal to that between the threads, which
we shall suppose to be one-sixteenth of an inch.
On the face farthest from the razor of the small wheel, about twenty
round brads are inserted near the circumference at equal distances apart, and
all the same distance fimn the centre of the bolt. If the wheel be rotated the
distance between two brads, the razor is drawn forward one three hundred
and twentieth of an inch.
A small rectangle of tin or brass about three-fourths of an inch long is
bent at right angles, and one edge is cut to form a slightly concave set of
twelve vertical teeth of equal size, to turn the 4-inch wheel by pushing
against the brads. If ten of the teeth are used, one tooth will move the
razor forward one thirty-two hundredth of an inch.
This ratchet is now fastened to the side of a long horizontal lever, which
is secured at one end to an upright support. The other arm rests upon an
eccentric on the square end of the axis of the 12-inch wheel. Turning this
wheel causes an up-and-down motion of the ratchet. The eccentric has a
rectangular opening so that it may be slipped upon the axis and made
more or less eccentric. It is held in any desired position by a set-screw.
A peg, or better a screw with the head removed, projects from the under
side of the lever just mentioned into a groove made in the circumference
of the eccentric. This groove must be so arranged, that when the ratchet
is rising, a tooth catches under a brad ; but when it ceases to rise, a short
oblique portion of the groove moves the tooth from under the brad. The
groove now resumes its straight course so as to prevent the next tooth
above from coming in contact with the brad as the ratchet descends. An-
other short oblique portion of the groove brings this tooth under the
brad. As one brad escapes from the top of the ratchet, another enters at
the bottom.
75)
To prevent any lost motion, and to push back the razor support when
the 4-inch wheel is turned backward, a strong spiral spring may be placed
on the bolt so as to extend from the bearing to the nut.
With the above described arrangement of parts, sections can be cut one
thirty-two hundredth of an inch thick. By shifting the eccentric so that
alternate teeth work, the sections are of double the thickness, etc. But
little eccentricity is needed, about one-sixteenth of an inch being sufficient
when each tooth of the ratchet is employed.
On the organogeny of Composit^e. By G. W. 3Iartin.
On the development of the akchegonium and apical growth in the
STEM OF TsUGA CANADENSIS AND PiNUS SYLVESTRIS. By D. M. MOT-
TIER.
[abstract.]
This work consisted in a study of the development of the archegonium
and the meristems of the stem. The results obtained in reference to the
archegonium differ from those of Strasburger in that the neck of that organ
in Tsuga consisted of two cells in as many cases as where one only was
found, and very rarely three. In Pinus the neck of the archegonium was
found to be made of two layers of cells, four in each layer, lying one above
the other, instead of one layer.
As regards the growth of the stem it is argued that we can not say with
certainty that growth proceeds from a single initial cell, as claimed by Du-
liot for the Gymnosperms.
Preliminary notes on the genus Hoffmanseggia. By E. ]M. Fisher.
Development of the sporangium and apical growth of stem of Botrych-
lUM ViRGINIANUM. By C. L. HOLTZMAN.
80 .
The flora of Mt. Orizaba. By Henry E. Seaton.
As botanist of the J. T. Scovell expedition during July and August, 1891,
collections were made by the writer on Mt. Orizaba through a range of 3,000
to 14,000 feet.
The first collections of importance on the mountain were made by Fred-
eriS; Liebmann in 1811. Others who have collected on the mountain, and
especially in the valley of Orizaba and Cordoba, are Henri Galeotti, August
Ghiesbreght, E. Bourgeau, M. Botteri and Frederick Mueller. The volcano
of Orizaba is described by Liebmann as the most interesting mountain in
North America. It has a latitude of 18 degrees and lies surrounded by the
very fertile country of southern Mexico. It is only ninety miles from the
gulf, and having such a situation there is presented upon its eastern slope
every phase of vegetation from tropical to alpine.
The region in the vicinity of Cordoba, at an elevation of 3,000 feet and a
distance of sixty miles from the coast, has a sub-tropical vegetation. Palms
grow in abundance and orange, banana and coffee trees attain a high de-
gree of cultivation. Prominent among the families that make up the
shrubby and herbaceous flora are the Malvace*, Leguminosse, Rubiacea',
Compositte, Aeclepiadacere, Convolvulacea?, Solanacea?, Euphorbiacea^ and
Bromelliacere, besides the grasses, sedges and ferns.
The town of Orizaba, 1,000 feet higher up the mountain, has a somewhat
less tropical vegetation in the way of cultivated plants. At this altitude
the Composite have their greatest display. The Helianthoideae are the
forms most abundant, and not only are they characteristic of this particular
region but have in Mexico their greatest concentration, amounting, it has
been estimated, to thirty-two per cent, of the species and two-fifths of the
genera of all the Compositse of the country. The sub-order Eupatoriacese
ranks second in numerical strength, the genera Eupatorium and Stevia, how-
ever, contributing nearly all the species. The Asteroideee, have but little
representation in the forms Aster, Erigeron and Solidago, which are so char-
acteristic of the north. All the other sub-orders of the family are present
excepting the Arctotidefo and Calendulactte, which are confined principally
to southern Africa.
Collections were made at three successively higher stations till the alti-
tude of 9,000 feet was reached, and this zone of 5,000 feet above the town of
Orizaba may be considered as the temperate region, and that above 9,000
feet as alpine. Many plants of the sub-tropical region extend their range
to the temperate and even to the alpine district, this being especially true
81
of the low growing plants like Oxalis, Stellaria Trifolium and several of the
Malvas. The temperate zone is characterized, nevertheless, by many genera
and families that are not present or are hardly noticeable in the more trop-
ical regions. The genus Salvia and order Lythraceae have a strikingly large
distribution. Of these latter Cuphea is the most conspicuous element,
growing in great abundance under all conditions of soil and moisture.
There are many representatives from the Geraniacere, Borraginace*, Scroph-
ulariacea?, Verbenacea? and Acanthacea% which take the place in a great
measure of the Malvaceae, Kubiacese, Asclepiadaceie, Solanaceee and Euphor-
biacesB in the tropics.
Great and rapid changes are experienced in the flora as the slopes are as-
cended above 9 000 feet, and there are well marked zones for the distribu-
tion of plants till the limit of vegf tation is reached. Between 9,000 and 10,-
000 feet, species of Sisymbrium, Lepidium, Geum, Epiiobium, O^.nothera,
Krynitzkia, Mimulus, Castilleia, Verbena, Salvia, Plantago and Chenopo-
dium, are the most characteristic forms of the herbaceous flora. Promi-
nent among the Compositpe are Steria, Avillea, Dahlia and Tagetes, and be-
sides Eupatorium and Baccharis the shrubby flora is represented by Rubus,
Symphoricarpos and Bu'idleia. Prominent among the grasses are Agrostis,
Muehlenbergia and Bromus, and the ferns are represented by Adiantum,
Cheilanthes, Woodsia and Asplenium.
Between 11,000 and 12,000 feet the forests are entirely of pines and spruce.
The greater part of the herbaceous flora at this altitude is composed of Ce-
rastium, Lupinus, Acaena, Eryngium, Arracacia, Halenia, Penstemon, Cni-
cus and Stenanthium. Penstemon and Stenathium are exceedingly abun-
dant, though possessing a very limited range.
At 13,000 feet the vegetation consists principally of Ceraetium, Arenaria,
Potentilla, Castelleia and Lithospernum. The pine woods, beginning at
7,000 feet, disappear at 13,000 feet, excepting stunted forms that continue to
14,000 feet. At 13,500 feet the vegetation becomes scantier and the slopes
more sandy and beset with masses of sharp pointed rocks. The dry, sandy
soil produces species of Draba, Gnaphalium, Senecio, Cnicus, Agrostis, Bro-
mus and Asplenium. Even a.% 14,000 feet on the higher slopes, just at the
snow line, there exists quite a varied vegetation, with species of Draba,
Sisymbrium, Gnaphalium, Cnicus, Asplenium and the grasses of the sandy
plain belo ST. This was the highest point colleci ions were made, but sev-
eral species extend their range a hundred feet higher, and Dr. Scovell
secured a Draba at 15,000 feet.
6
82
The collection numbered 510 species, distributed among 459 Phanero-
gams and 51 Pteridophytes. In this limited space no mention has been
made of species, the object being only to present the geiieral character of
the flora of the mountain, as shown by the distribution of certain families
and genera. A more complete report will be published later, with notes
on species.
Ax APPAKATIS FOR DETERMINING THE PERIODICITY OF ROOT PRESSIRE. By
M. B. Thomas.
[acsthact.]
The paper presented the need of a self-registering apparatus for deter-
mining the periodicity of root pressure, and gave an outline of the ones
now in use, all of which were seen to need constant attention. An appa-
ratus made in the following manner was suggested. The base of the in-
strument is about 1^x3'^ and is supported by legs about ?/^ high. About
W^ from one end and in the center of the base is erected a standard about
2^ high and 4'^ in width. On the short end of the base and near the post
is fastened a set of strong clock-works. The works are covered with a box
and the end of a cylinder (V in diameter and V 10^' high is fastened to the
hour pinion of the clock by means of a pin passing through a hole in the
end of the pinion and fitting in a slot in the end of the cylinder. The top
of the cylinder is held in place by a pin passing through a support from
the main pillar and a hole in the end of the cylinder. To the large upright
pillar is fastened a U tube of about V in diameter ; one arm being nearly
as high as the pillar and the other but half the height. The tube is filled
with mercury to within about an inch of the top of the short arm. The
stem of the plant is cut off near the base and placed in position. An in-
verted U tube is fastened lo the stem in the usual way by means of a rub-
ber tube fastened with wire while the other end of the U tube is connected
with the larger one in the same way. The small XJ tube is filled with wa-
ter through an opening in the top. The cylinder which is made of light
tin is blackened by revolving it slowly in the flames of a candle or gas jet.
The indicator consists of a light steel wire with a cork at the end some-
what smaller than the diameter of the tube. This rests on the mercury.
It is then at the top of the tube bent twice at right angles and allowed to
extend to the bottom of the cylinder where it is again bent twice at right
83
angles and the end allowed to rest against the smoked surface of the cylin-
der. A pin driven in the pillar prevents the wire from turning to one side
because of the friction of its end with the cylinder. As the root absorbs
water the pressure upon the column of mercury increases, causing it to
rise in the tube lifting the cork and indicator with it. The indicator then
marks a continuous spiral course on the cylinder. The hourly variation
can be studied by observing the distances between the lines. The supply
of water given to the plant must be kept constant. An eight day clock
should be used and the apparatus need scarcely be touched until the plant
is exhausted.
The distkibutiox of tropical kekns in Peninsilar Florida. By LirciEx
M. Underivood.
To one who makes a visit to Florida for the first time, constant surprises
appear on every hand ; sand, palmetto and Spanish moss were expected,
but the excess of dry pine lands over hamaks, the multitudinous lakes of
every size and shape, the comparative purity of the waters, and the variety
of elevation apparent in short distances, formed elements that were not
looked for and that serve to modify the botanical features of the country to
a considerable extent. The river systems are mostly in a north and south
direction, and the rivers are sluggish and often rather deep. Throughout
the interior of the state, lakes of all sizes are abundant ; twenty-five to
thirty lakes in a single township (six miles square) is not unusual. Most
of the small lakes are without outlets, and frequently stand in deep hol-
lows. Sometimes you may find two lakes a half mile or so apart with a
difierence of elevation from 50 to 100 feet. Except for a slight discolora-
tion from roots, the water is remarkably clear and few algae were seen.
With the exception of river borders where clay and black mud are found,
there is everywhere the loose gray sand that rolls under foot of man or
beast, making progress slow and tedious, that supports no turf and only a
scattered vegetation, that absorbs moisture rapidly, and th^t contains a fine
dust that filters through the clothing and renders one black and grimy
after even the shortest tramp. Occasional swamps occur where a forme r
pond has given way to a bog, or where a small stream is choked up and
thus overflows its usual bounds ; here a variety of deciduous trees stand
thick together interwoven with the omnipresent and exceedingly spiny
84
Smilax of many species. Here and there are occasional overflows of larger
streams where the cypress flourishes, but pine is the prevailing forest
growth. From Gainesville southward through Ocala and on toward the
center of the state is found higher ground which, long before the phos-
phate fiend had bored the rocks for paying phosphate, was pitted with nat-
ural sink holes and caves where moisture is ever present and where the
frosts rarely penetrate. These extend to Brooksville and beyond, and are
found on either side of the Withlacoochee river. Further southward and
including the lower fourth of the peninsula are the low everglades with
saw grass lakes and scrub-palmetto barrens soaked with water during the
spring rains, which is reduced to scattered shallow ponds in the dry season.
Although Florida possesses a larger number of ferns than most of the
states of the Union (-43), and of these more than half (24) are found in no
other state, one who visits the state in the winter season will be impressed
with the rarity of ferns unless the state is reached before the usual Decem-
ber frosts have cut down the fronds. Along the rivers and wherever moist-
ure is abundant Woodward a Virginica grows luxuriantly in its season as
the most abundant fern. With it appear two of the Osmundas though far
less abundant than in northern swamps. It seems out of harmony with
our preconceived notions to find the fertile fronds of 0. cinnamomea grow-
ing from a circle of older sterile ones, but this condidon is common even in
January. Farther down the state Blechnum and Aspidium unitum and some
other species are occasional, but are rarely abundant, at least in the upper
two-thirds of the peninsula. In drier land Ptcris aquilina grows in a more
or less stunted condition, but in the more tropical parts of the state it grows
occasionally to an excessive height. Next to Woodwardia it is probably the
most abundant species. Polypodium incanum is everywhere found to a lim-
ited extent on tree trunks, but is found in profusion only in the southern
third of the state. At Orange Bend we found the mucrnnata form of Mar-
silia vestita in abundance rooting in sand and mud. While this is more or
less common from Oregon and Dakota to Southern California and Texas it
has never been reported bi fore from east of the Mississippi. Its presence
in Central Florida becomes almost as interesting a problem as that of its
congener, M. quadrifolia, in Northwestern Connecticut. No fruit could be
found in January, but in the latter part of March fruit was found in great
abundance.
The uncertainty of frosts makes the collecting peiiod difficult to predict.
Sometimes the fall frosts hold ofl" until Januaiy, and often cease to be
8.5
troublesome after the middle of February. In other years they appear
anywhere from December to April. Often they are local, while again there
will be a general freeze that will cut down all tender vegetation. The
"great frost"' of March, 1886, was sufHciently severe to kill the young fruits
of the cocoanut as far south as Lake Worth, and killed out much of the
Vittaria as far down the gulf side as ^Manatee. During last winter several
frosts appeared in January as far south as the lake region, and on the 8th
of April the Woodwardias along the St John's from Sanford to Palatka were
all drooping from a cutting frost. Of course in secluded places ferns may
be found at any season, but only in comparatively frostless winters can
they be seen to advantage in the northern half of the state.
The rarer ferns of Florida are tucked awaj' in inaccessible quarters and
are not to be found without much searching. Of the ferns peculiarly trop-
ical three groups may be considered: (1.) The swamp species. (2.) The
epiphytes, (o.) The lime-rock ferns. Of the swamp species, i>Zec/i/mm ser-
rulatum is perhaps the most common ; ordinarily this species grows from
two to three feet high, but toward its northern limit along the outlet of
Lake Dora we found robust forms six and seven feet high. Nephrolepis ex-
altata we found in profusion at the same place growing on decaying stumps
and logs. In fact this seems to be its usual habitat instead of palmetto
trunks, as so often stated. A^pidium unitum has much the same range.
Polypodium phiillitidls comes north on the gulf side as far as the Manatee
river and we found it not uncommon at Lake Worth. Acrostichum aureum
frequents the brackish borders of tidal streams occasionally encroaching
below high water mark. In the west coast it comes up as far as Tampa,
and on the Atlantic coast it is more or less common throughout the Indian
river country and comes well up to the coast above Titusville. We did
not find Asplenium serratum in any part of the state visited, though Garber
reported it from Manatee in 1879. It more properly belongs in the really
tropical portion of Florida.
Of the epiphytic species Mttaria and Polypodium aureum come furthest
north. We found abundance of the former between lakes Griffin and Har-
ris ; the latter may be seen occasionally in the vicinity of Lake Monroe,
though it is more common below Titusville on the east and Tampa Bay on
the west. Vittaria grosvs pendent on palmetto trunks at every height and
in every stage of growth from prothallus to mature plant.* Its northern
"■■It may be of interest to state that a species of liverwort, Biccia rdiculala, was basrd
on the prothallus of this fern.
S(i
limit as we found it is in Lake county. Poh/podium aureum usually grow s
just under the clustered leaves of the cabbage palmetto, often at a height of
twenty-five or thirty feet. OpMoglossum palmatum comes as far north as
Manatee where we found the sterile fronds in February after a wearj'
search, for it grows well up on the palmetto trunks, burying its roots deeply
between the old decaying bases of the palmetto leaves. He who attempts
to climb the palmetto trunk is not usually anxious for the second trip.
The Ophioglossum fruits in April or perhaps the last of March and is the
most peculiar member of its order, since most of its congeners are terres-
trial in habit. The remaining epiphytes have not been found north of the
tropical portions of Florida, which include the Keys and the region of Bis-
cayne Bay.
The rock-loving species have a more extensive distribution as they grow
in places beyond the reach of ordinary frosts ; in the high hamak region to
which allusion has been made, several of the tropical species linger in por-
tions of Florida, too cold even for the successful culture of the Orange. In
the various limestone sinks about Ocala may be found Pteris cretica, As-
plenium rhizophyUum, Asplenium firnmm, Poli/podium. pecctinaium, Aspidium
patens and Adiantum teneritm. From this same region the rare Phegopteris
tetragona was collected, but its discoverer holds the exact locality in secret,
and furnishes herbarium specimens at 50 cents apiece. While this method
of procedure is not what is expected among botanists, one who knows the
diflBculty and expense of securing some of the rare Florida ferns can
scarcely have the heart to criticise too harshly.
A still more interesting locality for the rock ferns is on the Withla-
coochee river, two and a half miles below Istachatta. This town which
makes considerable display on the maps, consists of two houses and a store
and must be reached from Pemberton the nearest railroad station by boat
I r private conveyance. As the exact locality has never been defined it
was by merest chance that we met ]\Ir. F. M. Townsend, the proprietor of
the store at Istachatta, who conducted Donnell Smith to the same location
in 188:'). The locality, which is on the premises of Mr, George K. Allen,
was reached just at nightfall. Here, besides a much greater profusion of
the species found at Ocala, are found the rare and variable Phegopteris rep^
tans and a great profusion of Aspidium trifoHatwu. Other stations are found
near Brooksville and farther down the river on either side. In these shel-
tered sink holes, protected from frost and so far removed from sunshine as
to retain moisture in the driest season, these relics of a tropical flora still
87
persist, never attracting the attention of either the native "cracker" or the
northern migrant, both of whom stare alike at the botanist and his outfit
and doubtless wonder what he can want of "fearns." While the higher
flora of the tropics does not begin to appear until we reach the Manatee on
the west coast and Lake Worth on the Atlantic seaboard, these outliers of
the tropical flora extend from two to three degrees farther north, and rep-
resent the stragglers in the southern retreat that has marked the southern
extension of the peninsula from reef to key and from key to everglade.
With all the information that could be gathered before starting we found
that the experience of the winter was necessary to learn the peculiarities
of the country and the best localities for exploration and especially how to
reach them after they were made known, for of all English speaking coun-
tries to learn how to reach a given point Florida is one of the worst in our
experience. To point out some of the best localities for future exploration
is partly the object of this paper. We would like also to protest against
the stupid method of sending out collectors to look simply for the higher
vegetation of a new region. Mosses and hepatics, algjv-, lichens and fungi
form just as much a part of the flora of a country as do the seed plants and
ferns and often furnish more valuable information regarding the true char-
acter of a region than can be gained from a study of the higher flora alone.
Four distinct regions in Florida suggest themselves as likely to yield not
only more interesting tropical ferns than have yet been brought to light,
but a rich har.vest of new facts and species illustrating the nature and dis-
tribution of the tropical flora of the peninsula. This, however, will only
be possible when the critical botanist gets away from his dried herbarium
fragments and studies the flora face to face in its native fastnesses. Then
only can biological surveys prove a success. These regions are :
1. The river region>i of West Florida. — The AVithlacoochee, especially from
Pemberton Ferry to the mouth, and including lakes Tsala Apopka and Pen-
asoffkee on either side, the ]\Ianatee, the Myakka and the Peace. Explor-
ations along these rivers can best be made in boats* and are likely to well
repay the cost, for while nearly all have been somewhat visited by bota-
nists, the country has been skimmed rather than explored.
2. The interior lake region of South Florida. — This would involve a trip
from Kissimmee southward down the chain of lakes to Okeechobee and
-The region of Lake Tsala Apopka and Lake Penasuffkee conld best be explored with
a horse and wagon, though the develoinnent of phosphate beds in Citrus coxinty is
likely to extend the public means of conveyance. Kailroads in Florida are too slow and
uncertain for much depeudeuce for short trips.
and then westward through the drainage canals and the Caloosahatchee
river to Punta Raesa. This means from 200 to 250 miles by boat, subjec-
tion to considerable hardship, and could only be undertaken by a party.
3. The Keys. — Within the triangle whose base is a line running from
Key West to Key Largo, and whose apex is at Punta Rassa, there are myr-
iads of small islands, all lying in the tropical portion of Florida, which
have never received anything like a thorough botanical exploration. These
can only be explored by boat. A small sailing craft can be obtained at
Tampa, INIanatee, or Key West, for $40 a month furnished with a sailor who
will also act as cook. Board is cheap, for game and fish are abundant,
while other supplies will have to be obtained at the point of embarkation.
The scattering trips that have already been made to this region have
yielded some of the rarer ferns, to say nothing of extensive additions to the
higher flora of the state, ranging from a new genus of palms down. Unless
it be among the algtc not a single specimen of the lower cryptogams has
been collected in this region.
4. The Biscayne Bay region. — The fairest spot we found in Florida during
last winter was Lake Worth. The northern tourist who leaves this out
misses the best of the state. Here the climate is that of Southern Califor-
nia, mild and balmy like all Florida, and yet with the invigorating tonic
that nearly all the rest of Florida sadly lacks. Here, too, if you are fortu-
nate enough to stop at Oaklawn on the mainland, you will find as we did
the first square meal in Florida, served by the genial judge of Dade county,
who is also the proprietor of the best hotel on the lake. Here was the firat
real taste of the tropics. Tropical fruits and cocoanuts in profusion, man-
groves without trunks set up on spider like roots, banyans, and a profusion
of strange shrubs and trees. It was only when too late to avail ourselves
of the trip that we learned how to reach Biscayne Bay from the Atlantic
side. Of course it could be reached from the Gulf side by boat,* but in
vain did we try to learn whether there was an overland passage from Mi-
ami to Lake Worth. Here we found that a solitary mail carrier tramps the
distance (about 60 miles) once a week, thus bringing the two settlements
of Dade county within reach of each other. He goes up and down the
beach, for there is no other path. Life saving stations are scattered along
the coast at intervals of about 25 miles, and the only places where there is
real danger is at the inlets, which, during the high seas are difficult to nav-
* Miami may he reached from Tampa by a tri-weekly mail steamer to Key West (fare
$10), thence by sailing vessel which carries bi-weekly mail to Miami (fare $4).
89
igate in the frail barks that serve lor ferries, and the inlets are usually in-
fested with both sharks and " 'gators." The best collecting ground is usu-
ally within 300 yards of the coast line. The ordinary guide books state
that " there is nothing of interest below Lake Worth," but one who has
seen the country below from a botanical standpoint says " there is nothing
above Lake Worth," Botanically this is doubtless the most interesting
region of all Florida. The part between Lake Worth and Miami has so far
as we know never been trodden by a botanist. Around Miami and on the
neighboring Keys have been found most of the remaining tropical ferns of
Florida, viz.: PolypocUum Sirartzii, Asplenium serratum, A. dentatum, Nephro-
lepis acuta, Pteru longifolia, Tirnitis lanceolata and Aneimia adiantifolia.
Some ai>ditiuns to the istatk flora ikom I^ltnam county. By Lucien M.
IJXDEKAVOOD.
While the higher flora of Indiana seems to be fairly well known, it is
surprising to find so little on record regarding the lower cryptogams of the
state. Except a short paper on " The Mildews of Indiana,"* a few bulletins
from the experiment station relating to some injurious fungi, a shortlist of
mosses and lichens from Richmond,! and a few scattering notes in the
Botanical Gazette, nothing has been placed on record, which, however, is far
from saying that nothing has been done in this direction. It is a question
whether as teachers of botany we have not swung the pendulum too far in
training our students to become expert section- cutters and discrioainating
histologists and have thereby left out of their course that cultural feature
of botany that comes only from bringing them in direct contact with na-
ture. I plead for considerable field work as an invaluable adjunct to labora-
tory instruction. In a year's study of botany a student ought to become
fairly proficient in the manipulation of the microscope and at the same
time learn how and where plants grow (and especially the less conspicuous
plants), and where their position is in the system, thus gaining a love for
nature as well as a knowledge of the methods of manipulation. Botany
ought to be a cultural study as well as a purely technical one. When we
-J. N. Rose, Botanical Gazette, XI, CO-'J:! (188(1).
tMary P. Haines, 8th, 0th and 10th Ann. Reports, Geol. Survey, 235--J;!9 (1870).
consider the tendency of botanical instruction for the past ten years, it is
not surprising that the younger generation of botanists do not know how
to collect, and when turned loose in some highly interesting botanical field
find, to the sorrow of those who want something of them, that their eyes
are trained only for an immersion lens and not at all for learning the rich-
ness of the flora about them.
AVhile the season since our advent to the state has been exceedingly dry
and therefore unfavorable to the development of fungi, we have in three or
tour short excursions in the immediate vicinity of Greencastle, secured suf-
ficient material to show a rich cryptogamic flora. A few of the more inter-
esting discoveries will be noted and exhibited :
1. On the sandstone rocks at Fern, a rare moss, Eustichia Norvegica, is
found in great abundance covering many square rods of the rock wall.
It was first reported by Sullivant in 184(3 from Lancaster, Ohio, and distri-
buted in his Musci AUeghanienses as no. 188. Rau has reported it from Penn-
sylvania and Mrs. Britton found it in fruit for the first time in the Dalles of
the Wisconsin in July, 1883. Its sterile states have been figured by Sul-
livant* and its fruit by Mrs. Brittont. This Indiana station makes the
fourth in the fourth state.
2. On clay banks at Fern we have found a hepatic new to America, Fos-
sombronia cristata, Lindb.t In Europe it has frequently been confounded
with F. pusilla and is possibly the plant reported under that name by Sul-
livant in one of the earlier issues of Gray's Manual. Of the true pusilla
we have seen no American specimens in fruit, and Fos»ombronia is one of
the few genera of the Jungermaniaceie in which the exospore is sufficiently
difi^erentiated to furnish satisfactory specific characters. F. cristata is easily
recognized by the confluent crests of its spores. Its known range hitherto
includes Finland, Sweden, Germany, France and England.
3. Trametes ambigua (Berk.) Fr. This is not an an uncommon species in
the vicinity of Greencastle and Fern. It was iirst described by Berkleyi<
from specimens collected by Lea in the vicinity of Cincinnati, and has
since been reported from Ohio by Morgan, from Kansas by Cragin, and
from Missouri by Demetrio, through whom it was distributed by Ellis in
N. A. Fungi under the original name Dxdalia ambigua (no. 1593.)
4. Hjfdnum stratosum Berk, has been found once under a rotten log near
-Mem, Amer. Acad. n. s. Ill, 1. 1 (1846.1
tBull. Torrey Bot. Club. X, 99 (1883.)
JNotiser pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, XIII, 388 (1874).
^.Dxdalea ambigua Berk. Decades of Fungi, n. 83 (184(i).
91
Greencastle. It was first reported from the vicinity of Cincinnati by Lea
in 1845, ■ and afterward by JMorgan. AVe found it in 1889 near Syracuse, N .
Y. This makes the third station known to us. The species when fully
mature is unlike any other species of Hi/dnum in the stratification of the
spines.
5. Cordi/ceps capitata Fr. We have found one specimen of this species
in rich woods at Fern. It belongs to a group of fungi that are usually para-
sites either on living animals like the "caterpillar fungus" of New Zea-
land, or on living pupte of insects like f. militaris, or on truffles like the
present species. This species is usually reported as growing in pine woods,
but we found it last year at Cambridge, Mass., growing under oaks on
Elap]Lomiieei< grannlatus which is the usual host on which it has been re-
ported from North Carolina by Curties and from New York by Peck. The
present specimen seems to be saprophytic, growing from a nidus of decay-
ing matter. It was found of course under deciduous trees.
6. Phallus Ravcneln B. & C.t seems to be the common stink-horn of this
vicinity. It was originally reported from South Carolina and we found it
once at Cambridge, Mass. Fnder a rotten log at Fern we found its myce-
lial strands a ramifying network which extended ten feet or more, giving
rise to fifteen or twenty fruits in various stages of development. In addi-
tion to these fruits there were irregular swellings on the mycelial strands
in great abundance ; the larger ones were hollow, the smaller solid. They
suggest fichrotla which so far as we know have never been reported among
phalloids. As the specimens were collected in November, it would seem
that the plant was making an effort to store up nutriment in these tuber-
like bodies for the necessities of the following season.
Besides PhalJm Rannelli, which is easily recognized by its rudimentary
veil, its thin pileus, and its mild fragrance (?), we have found two other
P/ia/^i in this vicinity. P. dupJIcatus we have found once. An enormous
specimen ten inches in height and with a large bell-like veil fully four
inches acroes is evidently the plant that was referred by MorganJ to P. D<r-
jiionum. That its odor was diabolical we can fully testify. Although Fischer
has combined all the indusiate forms with Pliallns dupHcatus and refers
then to the genus Dicti/ophora, we have certainly a distinct species in this
specimen ; whether it should bear the name P. Dwmormm or not is another
question to be settled later.
■= loc. cit. n. 86.
tGrevilla, II, Sn (1873). Fischer refers it to Ithyphallus.
t.four. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. XI, 145 (1889).
i)2
Connecting forms among the tolyporoid fungi. By L. M. Underwood.
Unused forest resoi rces. By Stanley Coulter.
Distribution of certain forest trees. By Stanley Coulter.
Cleistogamy in Polygonum. By Stanley Coulter.
The Cactus flora of the southwest. By W. H. Evans.
Diseases of the sugar beet root. By Katherine E. Golden,
In some analyses of sugar beets made at the Purdue Experimenting Sta-
tion by Prof. Houston, station chemist, the percentage of sugar was so low
that an investigation as to the cause was made. Upon a microscopic exam-
ination by Dr. Arthur, station botanist, the low per cent, roots were found
to have bacteria in them. After that the roots were observed closely, and
it was found that individual beets among all the varieties grown were af-
fected, to a greater or less extent, with this bacterial disease.
The roots thus aflPected do not differ in outward appearance from the
healthy roots, but are much lighter in weight. The texture of a healthy
root is firm and somewhat brittle, and in color is a clear white, while the
diseased root is rather soft and tough and of a yellowish white color. If
the diseased root be cut transversely, concentric rings of brownish dots are
seen.* These rings are formed by the fibro- vascular bundles, the dots being
the separate bundles. The cells of the bundles have a deposition of yellow
coloring matter upon their walls, which becomes somewhat darker upon
exposure to air.
•■■•Circles of dark dots are found in all sugar beet roots, but in the diseased roots they as-
sume a greater prominence, and thus are very effective in the determination of the disease.
<);5
During the early growth of the plants no difierence can be seen between
the diseased and healthy ones, but as they develop the outer leaves of the
diseased plants wither, while the heart leaves curl up much more than the
normal, are dull in color, and the under side has a mottled appearance,
causing the leaves to resemble somewhat those of the Savoy cabbage. As
the season advances the differences between the diseased and healthy plants
become more and more accentuated. In the early season the bacteria are
found in parts of the plant only, but that may be any part from the leaves
to the extreme end of the tap root ; on account of this it is diflBcult to sur-
mise how the plants become diseased. In the late season the bacteria are
found permeating every part of the plant.
Examined microscopically the bacteria are found to the greatest extent
in the parenchymatous tissue, but the tissue is not broken down by them.
They are found imbedded in the substance of the protoplasm as well as be-
ing in the cell sap.
In form the beet bacterium is shortly cylindrical, being about twice as
long as broad. They occur mainly as isolated cells, though they are some-
times found in pairs. When vegetating rapidly the bacteria are very active,
moving in and out among one another with great rapidity. From their ar-
throsporous character the bacteria of the sugar beet very probably belong to
the genus Bacterium.
The pure germ is easily obtained by the ordinary gelatine or agar plate
separation method, if a piece of the root that has no contact with the
surface be used for inoculation. This gives the disease germ only, free from
soil and air contamination.
Very good development of the bacterium has been obtained by test tube
cultures of acid and neutral nutrient gelatine. Upon acid gelatine, using
spot cultures, the bacterium forms round, irregular-edged, greyish-yellow
masses, having beautiful iridescent surfaces. This iridescence is a peculiar
characteristic of the organism grown upon solid acid media. The masses
retain this iridescence for about two weeks; then the surfaces become crust-
like and dry, and the masses decidedly yellow in color. The bacteria liquefy
the gelatine, gradually forming hemispherical depressions into which they
drop. In neutral gelatine cultures they form, in most respects, the same
kind of growth as in acid, but the surface has simply a shiny appearance,
and as the masses ages they do not form crust-like surfaces. They liquefy
the neutral gelatine much more rapidly than the acid.
A curious feature of this organism is that it causes the gelatine to become
94
distinctly alkaline, even though it be acid before the organism has grown
on it. The diseased beet roots give a neutral or very slightly acid reaction.
In a Pasteur sugar culture the bacteria grow well, causing the liquid to
become slightly turbid in 24 hours. As growth goes on, the turbidity be-
comes greater, and again decreases until at the end of nine or ten days,
when the growth practically ceases, the liquid becomes clear, the bacte-
ria forming a greyish yellow sediment in the bottom of the tube.
They also develop well in sterilized sugar beet juice, but as contact with
the air causes the juice to turn black, they are not readily seen. In juice
that had been cleared by filtering through bone black very poor growths
were obtained.
Inoculation tests were made upon six apparently healthy roots that were
brought from the garden into the greenhouse. Four of these now give in-
dications of having the disease ; the leaves are crinkled, the under side
being dull and mottled in appeaVance. Bacteria were found in the leaves
and petioles.
Considerable interest attaches to this disease from its reduction of the
sugar content of the root, and its prevalence throughout the state. The
study of the subject was begun too late to estimate the loss by the dis-
ease, but as was already mentioned, diseased plants were found among all
the beets grown on the station grounds, which included eight varieties for
the past year — Red Top sugar, Silesian sugar. Imperial sugar, Dippe's Vil-
morin, Simon LeGrand improved white, Dippe's Kleiwanzleben, Flormond
Desprez richest, and Bultean Desprez richest. Roots were sent to the
station for analysis from twenty-seven different places in the state and
from nineteen of these some of the roots were diseased. This is not a
fair estimate of the prevalence of the disease, however, as the tendency is,
in sending beets for analysis, to choose the best looking and most nearly
perfect ones, and the proportion of infected specimens included is neces-
sarily much short of the actual average.
There were more of the Kleiwanzleben and Vilmorin beets sent than of
the other varieties, and these gave respectively 12.9 per cent, and 12.7 per
cent, diseased roots. Counting all the varieties there were 434 beets s(nt,
among which were 12.1 per cent, diseased. In analyzing for the sugar con-
tent one set gave 13.3 per cent for good beets, 11.9 per cent, for beets show-
ing a trace of the disease ; another set gave 10.2 per cent, for good ones, 7 per
cent, for diseased ones; while still another set, that Prof. Huston thinks
gives the fairest estimate of loss, gave 10.3 per cent, for good beets, and 5.7
95 .
per cent, for diseased ones, a lo6s of nearly 50 per cent, of the sugar content.
The per cent, of sugar is expressed in terms of the beet, not of the juice.
Besides the bacterial disease that is general for all parts of the plant, the
sugar beet roots are afft?cted with diseases of a local character. These are
in the form of surface scabs, discoloration of the tissue, and small masses of
tissue different from that surrounding them.
The scabs are of two kinds, one resembling the so-called "deep scab" of
potatoes, while the other protrudes from the surface.
The deep scabs are light brown in color wljen first affecting the root, but
as the root is more deeply affected they become dark brown or rusty black.
They vary in size from a mere dot to an extent sufficient to nearly cover
the whole root, though the latter case is not so often found. The deep
scabs are sometimes accompanied by a red discoloration of the tissue that,
in some cases, extends fully two inches beneath the surface. Upon expos-
ure to the air the red color changes to magenta. These scabs are not to be
confounded with the breaks in the surface of the roots caused by uneven
growth.
The raised scab differs essentially from the preceding in outward appear-
ance, as it forms warty elevations on the surface of the roots. It has the
same general color as the deep scabs, but has not been found covering so
great an extent of surface as they. When found in large quantity, instead
of extending itself over the surface, it seems to have a tendency to form
bands encircling the root. It is oftenest found near the neck of the beet at
or near the surface of the ground. Both forms of scab are found on the
same root, sometimes in close proximity, and forms have been found seem-
ingly intermediate between the two. It is probable that the two forms of
scab are just different stages of the same disease ; the raised scab being the
first stage, where the irritated tissue with the corky modifications form ele-
vations on the surface of the root ; as the tissue outside the corky layers
dies and is gradually eliminated, the depressions are left in the surface.
This theory is given further force from the fact that the same organism has
been obtained from plate cultures of both forms of scab. The organism has
the characteristic of the potato scab germ described by Dr. Thaxter.* There
are the same filamentous forms that break up into bacteria-like bodies, and
the dark stain given to the culture medium.
The organism itself is perfectly colorless, but it excretes a substance
*Annual Report Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1890, pp. 81-95.
96
•which in the presence of oxygen becomes dark brown. Cultures have been
made in the fermentation tubes brought out by Dr. Theobold Smith, which
are so constructed that one arm of the tube remains free of all gases. In
such a tube the part of the culture in contact with the air becomes a deep
brown color and that in the opposite gas- free portion remains uncolored for
even a month or more, and its final change to brown, if the culture be con-
tinued suflSciently long, is without doubt due to diflfusion, both of the gas
absorbed from the air and the oxydized substance, by which they pass from
the open arm of the tube into. the closed arm.
Prof. Bolley * has induced the scab on the sugar beets by irioculating with
the organism from potato scab. The scab has also been transmitted to the
beet directly from the potato, and also from soil in which pototoes affected
with scab had been grown, by experiments made in a cool greenhouse at
the Purdue station. In the former case a young potato tuber, just removed
from a pot-grown plant and well covered with active scab, was laid in contact
with a perfectly healthy root of a young beet. An examination was made
eight days later, but with no distinct evidence of results. A further exam-
ination thirty-seven days later showed a well defined scab about a quarter
of an inch across upon the beet, where the diseased potato touched it, and
no trace of scab elsewhere. In the latter case ten healthy beets were trans-
planted to pots containing soil in which potatoes affected with the scab
had been grown. These were examined sixty- four days after being trans-
planted, and eight of the ten roots were affected with the scab, five of
them having the neck entirely surrounded with it.
The scabbing originates without doubt from the soil. How long the or-
ganism may maintain itself in the soil as a saprophyte is uncertain, but the
data elicited by Professor Bolley and by the Purdue station appears to show
that the time may extend over one or two years.
The tissue of the roots is found to be blackened occasionally. This black-
ening is in the parenchymatous tissues between the rings of fibro- vascu-
lar bundles, and is of varying extent. It is sometimes found in roots that
are neither affected with the bacterial disease nor scab.
There a^so occur small spherical or spheroidal masses that differ from
the rest of the interior tissue of the roots in having a uniform watery
appearance, similar to that of a water-core apple, and may, for the sake of
distinction, be called water-core spots. They occur in the parenchym-
atous tissue, and are sharply defined, not grading into the adjoining tissue.
Bulletin N. Dakota Exper. Sta., No. 4, December, 1891.
97
They are colorless, or of a pale yellowish tint, and turn black upon immer-
sion in alcohol, the rest of the beet remaining colorless. The spots are com-
posed entirely of parenchyma tissue, the cells having fine delicate walls.
The cf-lls, in the specimens examined, measured .03 to .075 mm. in diame-
ter, while the cells of the adjoining parenchyma measured .15 to .25 mm. in
diameter. The measurements were taken in transverse sections of the root.
No parasitic organism, either animal or vegetabi*', was found associated
with them, and no explanation of their presence is known.
The scabs, discoloration, and water-core spots do not seem to affect the
size of the beets, as they are oftener found in medium and large beets than
in smaller ones. The effect of their influence on the sugar content is not
known.
Plant zones of Arizona. By D. T. McDougal.
[abstract.]
The author, while collecting plants in Arizona during May to October,
1891, for the Botanical Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
made a series of observations resulting in additional data on a biological
survey of the San Francisco Mountains made by Dr. C. H. Merriam in the
previous year.
The feasibility of the correlation of the life forms of this region into the
Alpine, Timberline, Hudsonian, Canadian, Pine, Pinon and Desert Z mes
was recognized. Detailed notes of the occurrence of plants peculiar to
each zone, were made, and the bounding lines of each were carried south-
ward through the Mogollon, Graham and Chiricahua mountains, and ovex
the edge of the Colorado Plateau into the Verdi Touti, Salt and Gila basins
to the Mexican boundary.
Relation of available enzym in the seed to growth of the plant. By
J. C. Arthur.
The potato tuber as a means of transmitting energy. By J. C. Arthur
7
i»8
SCJEXCE AND THE CoLUMHIAN EXPOSITION. By J. L. CaMTIjELL.
[abstract.]
In this paper the author discussed the relation of science to the Exposi-
tion of 1893, the suhject being limited to the classification and the awards.
The suggestions presented were based chiefly on the writer's knowledge
of the subject from his experience as Secretary of the Centennial Exhibi-
tion, 1876.
Recent arch^ological discoveries in southern Ohio. By AVarren K.
MOOREHEAD.
Methods observed in arcii.'eolo(;ical research. By Warren K. Moore-
head.
The pre-historic earthworks of Henry county, Ind. By T. B. Reddinc;.
The mounds and enclosures of this county are not so large as some of those
of Madison, Randolph and Wayne counties adjoining us, but are large enough
and numerous enough to be of interest. While but very recently reclaimed
from the wilderness and from savage life, Henry county has its antiquities ;
an unwritten history, a history full of human life, human joys and human
sufferings ; of organized and aggregated labor ; of war, battle and bloodshed ;
of passions and worship. But the joys, the sorrows, the loves, the hates,
the struggles and the triumphs of those long centuries past have faded for-
ever out of sight, except so far as preserved in these ancient and rude earth
works. Since they lived, thought and acted —
"Year after year its course has sped;
Age after age has passed away.
And generations born and dead
Have mingled with their kindred clay,"
— Finley.
So far as my knowledge extends there are twenty artificial mounds and
fourteen enclosures within the limits of Henry county. There are also cer-
tain mounds or elevations that have much the appearance of artificial
mounds, but of which I am not sure, numbering in all twelve to fourteen,
99
and one uncertain enclosure. Of these the strong probability is some are
artificial. Doubtless some of the smaller mounds and enclosures have long
since been obliterated by cultivation.
I will now give a detailed list of the mounds and enclosures of Henry
county, which I have represented upon an outline map. There is a circular
earthwork, or enclosure, on E. S. E. .Section 1, T. 16, R. 10, in Franklin town-
ship, owned by .J. P. Nicholson, about sixty rods east of the pike. This has
been almost obliterated by long cultivation. It is about 150 feet in diam-
eter. I got my information mainly from Jethro AVickersham, whose father
once owned the farm. There is a circular inclosure on the line between
the N. E. and N. W. quarters of Sec. 22, T. 17, E. 10, Henry township, 100
rods west, and one and three-eighths of a mile south of the court house, on
lands owned by R. M. Chambers and M. L. Bundy. It is still in the woods
though mostly cut off. Its diameter (measuring in all cases from the center
of the embankments), is 115 feet; the height of embankment, at highest
point from bottom of ditch is about three feet. There is an open place, or
gateway, on the east side, about twelve feet wide. There is the appearance
of a small mound inside of the enclosure toward the west side, about fifteen
feet in diameter and eighteen to twenty-four inches high. Width of ditch
about eight feet, of embankment about fifteen feet. Large trees have grown,
died and decayed within this enclosure and its ditches and upon its em-
bankments since it was built. There is also a small mound in S. W. quar-
ter Sec. 7, T. 16, R. 11 E., nearly obliterated by cultivation, but I have not
made a personal inspection of it. There is another enclosure about 250 feet
in diameter on the west side of the N. E. quarter of S. AV. quarter Sec. 2, T.
17, R. 10, owned by Joseph Dorran. In early times this enclosure was a
noted structure. Its banks were five or six feet high, and the ditches were
clearly marked, but the northern turnpike runs through the eastern side of
it, while the larger part of it has been under cultivation for more than fifty
years, and it is gradually being obliterated. Its banks are now not more
than one to two feet high. I will say here, that in all the enclosures in
this county the ditches are on the inside of the enclosure. On the north-
east quarter of this same section, mostly on the southwest quarter of the
quarter and less than half a mile to the northeast from the above named
enclosure, is the largest group of enclosures and mounds found in the
county. They are situated on the eastern part of the farm of John C. Hud-
leson, and cover an area of ten to twenty acres. There are in the group
nine well defined enclosures, and one or two apparent enclosures which
100
have been so completely obliterated by the plow that I cannot be cer-
tain about them. I have visited and measured all of these. The largest is
situated farthest east, near the line and very near the N. E. corner of the
quarter quarter. It is 650 feet in circumference and is an ellipse, longest
east and west. Its east and west diameter is 215 feet. The north and south
is about 150 feet. Within this enclosure is a large mound, longest east and
west and having much the appearance of two mounds joined to each other,
the western mound being the highest. The length of the mound, east and
west, is 140 feet and it is about 100 feet wide, north and south. The height
of the mounds above the general original surface is about ten feet; above
the bottom of the ditches about fifteen feet. The ditch varies in depth but
is probably six feet in deepest place, and shallows off into three feet at
places. It is mostly in the original forest, but has its south embankment
in a cultivated field. On each side of the eastern part of the mound there
are slight elevations, whether natural or artificial I cannot tell. They give
the mound an appearance of an attempt to imitate a cross. I have a map
of this whole group, and an elevation showing shape of the large mound.
This mound has been dug into in four or five places at different
times.
In the fall of 1890 myself and several others made an exploration of parts
of this mound. We dug a trench six to eight feet deep from the east side
to the center, and one from north to south through the western end of the
mound. We found two places in the last, one within eight or tf'U feet of
each end, where the clay had been burned hard, and yet there were no
ashes. Batwen these two places about thirty feet apart we found deposits
of ashes but no burnt clay, indicating that the ashes had been removed
from the places of fire and thrown in heaps at a distance of a few feet.
These places of burnt earth were about two by three feet in size and burned
to the depth of ten or more inches. One of them had the appearance of
having been raised above the surrounding earth seven or more inches. It
was longest east and west and had somewhat the appearance of the figure
8. Near the center of the mound in the trench dug from the eastern side
we found, at a depth of nearly nine feet, a large bed of ashes some six
by seven feet in diameter. The bed was slightly hollowed out and the
ashes at deepest place, near the center, were not less than four to five
inches in depth. Among these ashes we found much charcoal and
many fragments of bones, some of which I have with me. I am not
able to say from what animal they are. A little to the northwest of
101
this bed of ashes was another bed of ashes and burnt clay which had
been explored at some time by other parties, but I cannot give results.
The large bed found by us was burned hard, of a dull red color, to a depth
of about eight inches.
At the time of making the explorations of the large mound we discovered
anotht-r small mound about sixty rods to the northeast of the large one, 100
feet in diameter and about six feet high, situated upon a point of a hill over-
looking Blue river valley, and in front of which was formerly a marsh of
several acres. The ditch and enclosure around the mound are very dis-
tinct, it having only very recently been cleared of timber. The ditch at
places is three feet deep and the embankment averages about two and a
half feet in height.
To the east of this a few rods, just across a deep ravine on the north edge
of a hill, is an embankment of about six feet in height and nearly two hun-
dred feet long. To the south of the ditch behind the embankment, which
is not less than forty to fifty feet wide, the hill rises about twenty feet. The
excavation behind embankment is longest east and west. It is wholly un-
like anything else found in the county, and no one is able to give any ac-
count of its origin.
Ten rods west of this large mound and enclosure is another enclosure,
partly in the woods but mostly in the cultivated field. The ditch is well
preserved in that part in the woods, but is almost wholly obliterated
in that part within the field. As near as I could determine this enclos-
ure was about one hundred and fifty feet in diameter. The ditch on
the north side is now about two to two and one- half feet in depth. I
am inclined to the opinion that there was also a mound probably two or
three feet high within its enclosure, but if so it is nearly levelled. One
hundred feet to the northwest of the last is another enclosure, all in the
woods, ninety- four feet in diameter and with shallow inside ditches at pres-
ent one to three feet deep, and having a gateway on east, opening toward
the large mound already described. Near the gateway, on the south, is the
appearance of a small mound about twelve feet in diameter and twelve to
eighteen inches high. It has been dug into recently and seems to be a mass
of gravel. I am in doubt whether it is natural or artificial. One hundred
feet from the last is an artificial mound forty feet in diameter and about six
feet high. The south edge is in the cultivated field but the main body of
the mound is in the woods. It has been recently dug into by Joshua Hol-
land, of North Carolina, and Mr. Reynolds, of the Smithsonian Institute,
102
but work was not completed and nothing of importance was found. This
is the only clearly identified mound in the whole group not within a circu-
lar enclosure. About one hundred and fifty feet south of this little mound,
within the cultivated field, are the remains of a large circular enclosure
with a gateway facing the east and the large enclosure already described.
It is two hundred and fifty feet in diameter and the ditches are from three
to five feet or more in depth, notwithstanding years of cultivation under
the plow. There is the appearance of a mound in the western part of this
enclosure, about forty feet in diameter and about two feet high.
One hundred feet south of the above is another enclosure one hundred
and fifty feet in diameter, with ditches two or three feet in depth. It has
also an opening to the east, but not so well marked as the others. This en-
closure is almost immediately east of the house on said tract and just east
of the old orchard. A long period of cultivation has doubtless much low-
ered its walls. There is a slight indication of a mound near by, but if it is
one the plow has so completely obscured the evidences that it is not safe to
call it one. About two hundred and fifty feet to the southeast^ in the edge
of the grove, is another enclosure one hundred feet in diameter, with ditch
on inside two to two and one-half feet in depth. It has also a gate or open-
ing on the east faciug the large enclosed mound. Sixty feet to the southeast
of the above is another enclosure ninety feet in diameter, with inside ditch
eighteen to twenty-four inches in depth, and having an opening to the
northeast facing the large enclosure and mound. There is also a small
mound in the center of this enclosure.
Going another hundred feet to the southeast we find another enclosure
one hundred and twenty feet in diameter, with a mound in the center from
three to five feet high. The ditch is from two to three feet deep. There is
an opening on the northeast facing the large enclosure and mound. East,
slightly north of the above and adjoining it is another enclosure one hun-
hundred feet in diameter. The ditch is shallow, not moi'e than eighteen to
twenty-four inches in depth. The embankment on the west and adjoining
the preceding seems to be common to both enclosures. The space between
the ditches of the two is about twenty to twenty- five feet. To the northeast
is a low, wet place. The opening is not very clearly marked in this last en-
closure but it seems to be to the east. North of this last, about three
hundred feet in the cultivated field, are very strong evidences of another
enclosure, but it has been so disfigured by the plow and long cultivation
that I do not feel safe in saying positively that it is an artificial enclosure.
10?,
but it is very suggestive of one, and is about one hundred and sixty feet
in diameter.
There are three or four other little hillocks in the neighborhood of these
enclosures that look much like small mounds. On the west side of the pike,
about sixty or seventy rods "west of the large mound, is a gravel bank in
which a number of human skeletons have been found. There was found
in this bank, recently, the skeleton of a dog, about six feet below the sur-
face. Skeletons have been found both in a horizontal and in an erect pos-
ture. In it are also found pieces of charcoal ; also shafts of earth and clay.
These are round and from five to eight feet deep and two or three feet in
diameter, as if a grave had been dug and then filled with earth. It is prob-
able that there was a mound on this bank, but it has been so long worked
and so much of it removed that it cannot be verified. It was at least a
burial ground. The skeletons mostly crumble on being exposed.
Across the river, about a mile to the west, on the N half of Sec. 3, T. 17,
li. 10, belonging, also, to Mr. Hudleson, is another large circular enclosure
in cultivated ground. It is probably 150 feet in diameter, and before the
land was cleared was enclosed by embankments five to six feet high, — but
a long period of cultivation has nearly obliterated the embankments. I do
not know whether it enclosed a mound or not, but probably did. There
was, until recently, a mound on S. W, S. E. quarter Sec. 1, T. 17, R. 10,
owned by Joseph Smith, about thirty rods west of his house. It was about
fifty feet in diameter, and eight to ten feet high, before cultivation. During
the last year ^Ir. Smith plowed it down and used the earth to make an
embankment along the creek near by. He tells me that he came to a bed
of ashes and charcoal in the center of the mound, about six feet square but
did not examine to ascertain the depth . He did not notice any fragments
of bones or other articles.
There is also a mound on the K. S. E. quarter Sec. 24, T. 16, R. 10, in
Franklin township, now owned by John Gilbert. It is small, probably
forty feet in diameter, and three or four feet high. There is another mound
in the same township on S. W. S. W. quarter Sec. 15, T. 16, R. 10, owned
by Charles Stubbs. It is about three feet high and fifty feet in diameter.
It has been dug into and ashes and coals found. Another mound, in this
township, is found on S. W. S. K. quarter Sec. 28, T. 16, R. 11, owned by D.
H. Fenstamaker, about thirty rods south of the Central railroad, about six
feet high and seventy-five across, before plowed down. There is a small
hillock, or mound, in the southeast corner of the county, about ten feet
104
high and fifty in diameter, on the top of which formerly grew a large beech
tree. It is supposed, by some, to be artificial, but others think it natural.
I have not examined it. It is in the N. E quarter Sec. 31, T. 16, R. 12.
There is a small mound, now almost obliterated, on the N. W. S. E. quar-
ter Sec. 14, T. 1(5, R. 9, owned by Daniel Jackson. Was probably twenty-
five feet in diameter and four feet high. Was dug into and ashes and
coals found. About a mile southwest of the above, on the S. W. quarter
Sec. 3, T. 1(5, R. 9, owned by John Small, is another small mound of about
the same size of the one just described.
On Charles McDormain's farm near the S, E. cor. of Sec. 20, T. 17, R.
10, is a mound about fifty feet in diameter and three feet high. It has been
under cultivation for more than fifty years, and was, originally, probably
over six feet high. It has been dug into. Flints, ashes and coals were
found. On the Hoover place, west of the barn, in the N. E. quarter Sec.
5, T. 16, R. 10, is a small mound, now about fifty feet in diameter aad two
feet high. It has been plowed over fifty years or more. There is a small
mound on the farm of Jonathan K. Bond, on the N. W. S. W., quarter Sec.
24, T. 17, R. 9, probably forty feet in diameter and four feet high. This,
and the one on McDoroaan's farm, and the large circular enclosure on the
west part of Iludleson's farm and a small mound on Benj. Wilhoit's farm
are the only artificial earthworks of which I have any information, which
are located on the west side of Bhie River, in this county. There is a
small mound on S. E. N. E. quarter Sec. 2S, T. 16, R. 10, in Spiceland town-
ship, on the farm owned by Hinshaw's heirs. It is represented as about
fifty feet across and three or four high. It was dug into, a few years ago,
and ashes and coals found.
One of the largest and best preserved mounds is found on N. E. S. E. quar-
ter Sec. 26, T. 17, R. 10, owned by John R. Peed, about two and a half miles
southeast of New Castle. Until recently it was in a forest, but has been
cleared, and, the embankments plowed down and the ditches partly filled. It
is sixty-five feet in diameter, and at least six feet high. The ditches were
formerly about three feet deep. I first saw this mound when I was a small
boy, it being near the farm on which I was brought up, and was often visi-
ted by me. When I first saw it, there was growing on its top a large red oak
three feet in diameter. The mound has been dug into several times.
Ashes, coals, bones and fragments of pottery were found, but they have
been scattered and carried ofi", and I cannot find any of them to examine.
I have recently visited the mound. It is surrounded by an enclosure
105
130 feet in diameter from the crest of the embankment on one side to that
on the other. The mound is situated in western part of the enclosure,
fifty feet west of the eastern side. There is a gate, or opening in the east-
ern wall. The mound is at least six feet high above the general level of
country, and was about nine feet above bottom of the ditches when I first
saw it. The old red oak has blown down, but the stump is still lying on
the mound. At the ground it is about five feet through, and, as near as I
could calculate from the annual rings of growth, it was at least 280 years
old. There is, also, a small mound on the S. N. W. quarter Sec. IS, T. 16,
R. 12, owned by J. V. Huffman and now occupied as a cemetery. It is
about seventy feet in diameter and was formerly eight to ten feet high, and
is now about six feet in height. It was dug into a number of years ago and
ashes, coals and burned stones were found. Neai* by, about 150 feet to the
Northwest is a pit from which the earth was probably taken to build the
mound.
Daniel Harvey informs me that there are three small mounds on N. W.
N. W. quarter Sec. o6, T. IS, R. 10, now owned by Thomas Graham, ar-
ranged in a crescent shape. The large mound occupies the center and two
small mounds the ends. The center mound was dug into about thirty years
ago by Mr. Harvey and others, but found no skeletons nor remains. The
central mound is about ten feet high and sixty feet in diameter, and the
outside mounds are about thirty feet in diameter and four or five feet
high, so Daniel Harvey tells me. H. B Hernly informs me that there is a
large mound on W. N. W. quarter Sec. 25, T. 18, R. 10, owned by him. It
has not been explored and may or may not be artificial. I have had no
opportunity to examine it. There is a mound five or six feet high and
twenty five to forty feet in diameter on the N. E. N. E. quarter Sec. 27, T.
18, R. 10, now owned by Benj. Wilhoit. It has been dug into and shells,
etc., found.
The graves of a departed race are found in a great many of the gravel
banks of the country, I have the skulls and some of the other bones, and
a lot of beads, pendants, gorgets, and other articles, taken from some of
these graves upon John Hosea's farm, formerly owned by my father,
near this city. These pendants, gorgets and beads are mostly made from
the shell of a kind of Conch, called Busycon perrersum, found along the
Atlantic coast from Massachusetts south to the Gulf of Mexico. Some are
from other kinds of shells found along the same coast. Whether these are
the remains of the Mound-builders, or of a later race, is unknown. They
106
are very similar to many of the articles found in the mounds in such posi-
tion as to lead to the supposition that they were placed there by the build-
ers of the mounds.
< )X LeCoXTK's TEKUAl'IXS, E.\[V,S CONCINXA AND K. P'LOHIUANA. By O. P. IIaY.
On THE HKEEDINi; HAHITS, EGGS, AND YOIXG OF CERTAIN SNAKES. By 0. P.
Hay.
Notwithstanding the deep impression which serpents have made on the
human mind, as shown in literature and in popular conversation, it is sur-
prising how little accurate information has been accumulated concerning
some of their habits. The densest ignorance, the result of inattention and
general lack of interest, prevails with regard to some of the most interest-
ing matters connected with the life-history of snakes; while on the other
hand, many of the popular notions about the powers of these animals are
either wholly false or are gross exaggerations of the truth. The breeding
habits of our snakes, even of the most common species, belong among the
things about which little is known. Even our biologists have given but
little attention to this subject, while unscientific people simply recognize
the fact that nests of snake eggs are occasionally met with. For instance,
who would not suppose that all the essential facts are known concerning
the reproduction of the common black-racer, Bascanion constrictor? Never-
theless, where have we been told when it lays its eggs, how many there
are of them, how they are concealed, and when they hatch?
Some snakes are known to lay eggs which after a period produce young.
< )ther snakes are known to retain the eggs within the body until the young
have attained sufficient size and strength to care for themselves after birth.
Still other species are supposed sometimes to lay eggs, at other times to
bring forth living young,* or to produce some eggs and some living young
at the same time.t There are, indeed, oviparous snakes and snakes which
are ovoviviparous, and there is a conspicuous difference in their eggs. The
eggs of the oviparous species are furnished with a thick, tough, flexible
covering, or "shell," while the eggs of the species which produce living
- Proc. A. A. A, S., 1873, p. 185.
tl'roc. Phil. Acad. Sci., 1887, p. 121.
107
young have coverings which are very thin and delicate. Xow, should such
eggs as the latter be laid any considerable period before the young are
ready to be excluded, the thin envelopes would surely be torn during the
writhings of the embryo. That some of the eggs may be only partially de-
veloped at the time when the embryos of other eggs are ready to be ushered
into the world, and that all may be expelled together, is possible ; but this
is not the normal course of things and may not be well for the immature
young. Normally the coverings of such eggs are ruptured before birth or
immediately afterwards. On the other hand, it is quite probable that the
eggs of the oviparous species are laid a considerable period before they are
hatched. The tough coverings of such eggs protect them from attacks and
injuries from without, and at the same time resist the movements of the
young snake within. So far as we know, these eggs are deposited in the
earth, in piles of decaying vegetable matter, and similar places.
A very curious structure deserves mentioo here. This is the "egg-tooth,"
a small tooth fixed to the united premaxillary bones and projecting forward
slightly beyond the edge of the upper lip. It is present only in the embryo,
and is shed very shortly after the escape of the young snake from the egg.
In the ovoviviparous species, the tooth may apparently be shed before the
young are born. The tooth is employed by the little snake in ripping open
the tough egg-covering in its efforts to escape from its prison. It would
appear to be of little service to the young which are mature when born,
since the egg-coverings are so very tender ; nevertheless, I have found the
tooth present in all of the ovoviviparous species whose young I have had
opportunity to study. This tooth, as found in the black-racer, was de-
scribed as long ago as 1857, by Dr. Weinland ;* but MuUer had observed it
even earlier.
The Crotalidfe, including the rattlesnake, the copperhead, and the water-
moccasin, all, so far as I am able to discover, bring forth living young. The
number produced at each birth is small as compared with the numt)er of
young sent into the world by some other species.
As to the breeding habits of the copperhead, AgJcktrodon eoniortrix, we
have the statement of Dr. J. A. Allen t that in Massachusetts five out of
seven females caught in the latter part of July contained slightly developed
embryos, while of six killed in September, the oviducts of each contained
from seven to nine young, each of which had a length of six inches. As to
* Proc. Essex Institute, Vol. II, p. 28, pi. I.
fProc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., ISC.S, Vol. XIT, p. 17'.i.
108
the time of the pairing of the sexes, I have knowledge of only one observa-
tion. My friend, Rev. A. M. Hall, brought me from Western Pennsylva-
nia two specimens of this species, which he took while pairing, on the 28th
of August. Unfortunately, the female was disposed of before my investi-
gation of this subject was begiin. This observation and those of Dr. Allen,
when considered together, seem to indicate u period of gestation of nearly
a year.
The breeding habits of the water moccasin, Agkistrodon piscivorus, are no
doubt much like those of the copperhead. A female 2G inches long (U. S.
Nat. Mus,, No. 17968), which was taken on the Arkansas baak of the Mis-
sissippi river, just opposite Memphis, in the latter days of June, contains
seven eggs, four of which are in the left oviduct. I'sually the larger num-
ber of eggs in snakes is found in the right oviduct. The eggs of this speci-
men are about the size of the yolk of a hen's egg. In each is an embryo
not larger than a common pea.
The breeding habits of Crotalus do not appear to be well known. Prof.
Putnam* dissected a female which he says contained in the oviducts
eight fully formed eggs, besides a number of smaller ones, which he sup-
posed belonged to a later brood. It is more probable that all the eggs were
really in the ovaries. A female rattlesnake, 39 inches long {V. S. Nat.
Mus., No. 17959), was brought to me from Western Pennsylvania by Mr.
Hall. In this I find nine eggs, four of which are in the left oviduct. The
eggs will average nearly an inch and a half in long, and an inch in short,
diameter. In one of them I find an embryo about 3 inches long. The egg-
coverings are extremely thin. The mother snake was captured some time
in August, probably before the 15th. At what time of year the sexes unite
I find nothing on i-ecord. Prof. S. W. Williston, who has had abundant
opportunities for making observations on C. confluentus, states t that the
sexes pair in May. Nor do I know how large the young are at the time of
their birth. M. Palisot Beauvois, as quoted by Dr. Goode,; says that he
saw five young run into the mouth of a mother snake, and that these
young were about the size of a goose (luill. The young are undoubtedly
much larger than this statement makes them. There is apparently as
strong a tendency in observers to minify the size of the young of snakes as
there is to magnify the size of the adults.
■•■■'Amer. Nat., Vol. II, p. loo.
t Amer. Nat., Vol. XII, p. 207.
1 Proc. A. A. A. S., 1873, p. 183.
109
I have been enabled to make some observations on Sktrunis catenatus
Raf. {Crotnlus tergeminus Say.)- In the American Naturalist for IMarch,
1887, pp. 211-218, I published some notes on the breeding habits and young
of this species. About September 1, two females, which had been kept in
confinement, brought forth young, one six, the other seven. The young
were not seen by myself at the time of birth, but on the 1st of January
they were at least 10 inches long. From a female sent me from Paris,
111., I have taken an almost fully developed embryo (U. S. Nat. Mus., No.
17947). It measures 7^ inches in length, and this is probably nearly the
length which it would have been when born. A considerable amount of
the yolk was still spread over and among the coils of the little snake ; but,
when its body was opened, a large mass of the yolk was seen to have been
received within its walls. This would be sufficient to maintain life and
growth until the little reptile could provide for its own necessities. The
fang is developed, and the egg-tooth is present, although it does not seem
to be directed so much forward as in other species. In the oviduct, lying
alongside of the embryo just described, was another egg which contained
an embryo only about 4 inches in length. It was so deeply immersed in
the yolk that its presence was not suspected until the yolk was cut par-
tially away. Nevertheless this immature little snake exhibits quite dis-
tinctly the pattern of coloration found in the adults. In contact with this
egg was another in which no indications of an embryo were to be found.
The more immature young were probably lying farther forward in the ani-
mal, but of this I am not now certain. Should all these eggs be expelled
from the mother's b jdy at the same time, it would seem that the least de-
veloped young muet perish. A female (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17950) of this
specit-s taken in Hamilton county, Ind., contained eight eggs, and these
had not yet left the ovaries. Three of the eggs were in the left ovary. The
eggs were an inch long by half an inch in the short diameter. Prof. Put-
nam mentions* a specimen of Sistrurus millarius which contained fourteen
eggs. This appears to be a larger number than is usually found in the
Cro'alidse.
The species of the genus Eutninia are probably all ovoviviparous. Dr.
Goode, as already cited, says that there is some reason to believe that some
of them are in some instani^es oviparous, in others ovoviviparous. Dr. C.
C. Abbott t says that the eggs of the garter-snake, E. sirtalis, and of the rib-
*Amer. Nat., Vol. II, p. 134.
t Rambles, ifcc, p. 295.
110
bon snake, E. sanrifa, are deposited in the loose sandy soil of the recently
plowed fields. He has found none earUer than May 0 ; and once he found
a complement of seventeen within a day or two of hatching. He farther
states that he has never come across a young snake less than four inches in
length, except in the case of the hog nosed snake Heterodon platirhinos. I
am convinced that there is some error of observation here. I shall present
evidence that the species of Eutainia bring forth living young, and that too
rather late in the summer and in autumn. It seems improbable that a
snake should usually be ovoviviparous, and again, at rare times, should lay
eggs furnished with coverings suitable for protecting the developing em-
bryos. If, notwithstanding all this, the Eutainias do lay spring eggs, I shall
be extremely glad to receive a batch of them.
Dr. H. C. Bumpus, in his interesting account of the snakes,* says that the
eggs of Eutainia sirtalis and of E. sauriia are sometimes found about out-
buildings, and in hatching give birth to little fellows having enormous
eyes and a spotted body, the longitudinal bands of the adults only being
gained after several sloughings of the skin. The source of the information
here detailed is not given; but almost certainly the eggs of some other spe-
cies have been mistaken for those of Eutainia. Young of both the species,
especially those of saurifa, taken by myself from the oviducts of the female
and with a considerable portion of the yolk still unabsorbed, have the
stripes perfectly distinct.
As to E. sirtali><, Prof. F. AV. Putnam t states that a female taken July 22,
contained forty-two nearly developed young. Each of these was 5^ inches
long. The mother snake was 35 inches long. Dr. J. Schneck, of Mt. Car-
mel. 111., writes + that seventy-eight were taken from a female. He implies
that he saw this done. C. Few Seiss says? that the sexes of this species
copulate in early spring and produce from thirteen to eighty young. That
he has seen the latter number from a single snake he does not say. Drs.
Coues and Yarrow refer j! to the habits of Eutainia sirtalis parietalis, as ob-
served by them in Montana during the month of August. "At this sea-
son all the female individuals observed were gravid with nearly matured
embryos. Like others of the genus, this species is ovoviviparous, the
young being some 6 inches in length when born." In a specimen of E.
■' Riverside Natural History, Vol. Ill, p. 371.
t Amer. Nat., Vol. II, p. 134.
t Amer. Nat., Vol. XVI, p. 1008.
f. Scientific Amer., Vol. LXIII, p. 105.
11 Bulletins U. S. Geol. & Geo. Survey, Vol. IV. p. 27
Ill
siHalis (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17960), captured near the city of Indianapolis
by Dr. Alex. Jameson about August 1, I find thirty-nine partially devel-
oped young. Of these, twenty-five are in the right uterus. The young
measure G inches in length. There is a considerable amount of yolk still
remaining attached to these young, a fact which indicates that they will
increase in size before birth. An examination of the mouth of some of
these little snakes shows that the egg- tooth is present. The membrane
which surrounds each egg is quite thin. The female bearing this lot of
young is 33 inches in length. Another female (I^. S. Nat. Mus., No.
17961), from Paris, 111., of nearly the same size, contained about thirty-
five young snakes, these being packed together so densely in the mother's
body that it was difficult to determine the number accurately without
removing them. They are each 7 inches long, and are evidently just
ready to be expelled. An examination of about half a dozen of them
failed to reveal the presence of the egg-tooth, which has therefore been
shed. Nor could I determine with certainty that any egg-covering was
present. The yolk of the egg, also, is wholly consumed. On opening
these young snakes 1 find little or none of the yolk within the body. In
this respect they contrast strongly with the young of the rattlesnakes.
The young garter-snakes must from the first depend on their own activi-
ties for support. This accords well with the report of Mr. C. Few Seiss,
that the young of a female kept in confinement began to feed shortly
after birth, strugglinji vigorously with one another for the earthworms
thrown them. At what time during the summer the Paris, 111., specimen
was captured I do not know. Seiss' statement that the sexes of E. sirta-
lis pair in the early spring has already been mentioned, Drs. Coues and
Yarrow {o^k cit., p. 278) tell us that the females of the closely related spe-
cies, E. radix, are pregnant in July and August, bringing forth as many
as thirty to forty young ; and that they are found in coitu in September
and October. Can it be that snakes copulate twice in the year, as Agassiz
says* some turtles do, and as Gage has recently found t to be the habit of
the newt, Diemyctijlusf Observations on this point are to be desired.
The ribbon-snake, E. saurita, appears to be. wholly similar in its breed-
ing habits to its relative just considered, although it probably does not
bring forth so many young at each birth. Prof. Putnam informs t us that
a female, taken in Massachusetts on July 13, had nine eggs, each three-
- Contributions, Vol. II, p. 491.
t Amer. Nat., Vol. XXV, p. 1091.
t Amer. Nat., Vol. II, p. 134.
112
fourths inch long and containing an embryo 2-2 inches in length. An-
other, taken July 31, contained but four eggs, and these are ready to be
burst by the young. The eggs containing the coiled embryos were then
an inch and a quarter long, while the extended young had a length of 5^]
inches. Dr. Goode has quoted * a note from Herman. Strecker, of Rf ad-
ing. Pa., who states that some years previously he had found and caged a
female of this species which soon produced thirty or more young ones.
He supposed that the little snakes had been hidden in the mother's stom-
ach. There is possibly some confusion here with E. sirtalis, judging merely
from the number of the young. Prof. S. I. Smith, of the Sheffield Scien-
tific School, is quoted! by Dr. Goode as having se«-n two young snakes,
each 3 or 4 inches long, run down the mother's throat. The statement is
no doubt incorrect, so far as regards the size of the young.
In a female (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 179G5) of the variety faircyi, taken
probably in Mis?>is8ippi, I find nine eggs, the hindermoet three of which
are in the left oviduct. The eggs are about three quarters of an inch long
and a third of an inch in the short diameter. The development of the
embryo had just begun. In a female (U, S. Nat. Mus., No. 17952) of
faircyi, 28 inches long, taken at Vt- edersburg, Ind., are twelve ovarian eggs
of the same size as those just mentioned. The hinder four are in the hft
ovary. At what time of the year the two specimens last described were
killed, I do not know. In a specimen of faireyi, 40 inches long (U. S. Nat.
Mus., No. 17958), captured at Vicksburg, Miss., about the 4th of July,
there are twenty young snakes, each close to 9 inches in length. The
hindermost nine of these are in the left oviduct. All were evidently ready
to be expelled. They did not appear to be contained in any egg-covering,
and the egg tooth was not found in any of the three which were examined.
Not only is this date not so early as that given by Dr. Abbott for the
finding of the eggs of this species in New Jersey, we must take into account
the difference in the climate, and especially the difference in the size of the
young snakes.
The species of the related genus Tmpidonntus are also ovoviviparous.
T. s^pedon, our water-snake, is the commonest species of the genus in the
eastern United States, It is extiem^-ly variable and reaches a large size.
Prof. Putnam has a note reg<rding the bretding habits of this species. +
He stat«^s that twenty two of the young belonging to one family were
*Proc. A. A. A. S., 1873, p. 18.
fProc. A. A. A. S., 1873, p. — .
X Amer Nat., Vol. II, p. 134.
113
found. Each of them was 8 inches long. Dr. Heilprin mentions* a large
specimen from which thirty-three young were taken. These were in dif-
ferent stages of development. Some of the larger ones had absorbed all
the yolk, while to others a considerable mass of this was attached. In a
specimen (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17962) from some point in northern Indi-
ana I find sixteen eggs, eight in each oviduct. The young are 7^ inches
long, and each is provided with a well-developed egg-tooth. This is curved
upward like a short horn, and tapers gradually to near the point, where it
rounds off rapidly. The egg-membranes are thin. I have some reasons
for believing that the larger specimens of this species will be found to pro-
duce a considerably larger number of young than the above observations
imiicate.
I have met with no statements regarding the breeding habits of either
Tropidonotus grahamii or T. leberis, except that made by Miss Hopley,t to
the efiFect that a specimen of the last-mentioned species in the Zoological
Gardens produced in August five young and at the same time some eggs.
What the state of development of these eggs was, and what became of
them, we are not informed. I have a female specimen (No. 26) taken
somewhere in Indiana, and in this I find eight eggs, of which three are in
the left oviduct. There are no signs of beginning development. A gravid
female (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17970), captured on July 15, and sent me by
Mr. W. O. Wallace, of AVabash, Ind., is 24 inches long. There are eight
eggs, two of which are in the left oviduct. The eggs are of different shapes,
on account of pressure. A considerable amount of yolk is still present, an
indication that the embryos are not yet completely developed. A meas-
urement of one of these shows it to be 63 inches long. The longitudinal
bands of the upper surface are sufficiently well displayed to enable one
easily to determine the species, but the longitudinal brown ventral bands
are not seen. I find no indications of the presence of the egg-tooth, al-
though it is probably present.
Some years ago I killed a specimen of a female of T. grahamii in Bureau
County, 111. Of the specimen the skin and a few eggs (U. S. Nat, Mus.,
No. 17954) were preserved. The time of capture was about the middle of
July or later. The mother snake was of such a rusty color that the species
to which she belonged could not then be determined. One of the eggs
measures an inch and a half in long diameter by three-quarters trans-
■ Proo. Phil. Acad. Sci., 1887, p. 121.
t Snakes, etc., Mi.ss C. C. Hopley, p. 137
114
versely. A considerable mass of yolk is present, into one side ol' which an
embryo snake is sunken. This embryo is 7 inches long; and, although
thus immature, has its scales and its colors so perfect that there is no diffi-
culty in assigning it to the proper species. The embryo is surrounded by
a very thin egg-covering. No indications of the presence of the egg-tooth
were seen until a series of sections through the snout were examined,
when it appeared.
Tropidonotus Jdrtlandi is a rather common snake in central Indiana. One
specimen (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17957) taken at Irvington contains three
eggs in each ovary. Each egg is a little less than half an inch in length.
Another specimen (U. S, Nat. Mus., No. 17953) from Winchester, Eandolph
county, has eight eggs in the ovaries. Each egg is seven -sixteenths of an
inch in length. This species is in all probability ovoviviparous.
The species of Sloreria are stated by Dr. Goode* to be oviparous; but
Prof. Copet regards them as ovoviviparous, and he is quite certainly correct
in his conclusion. One female of Storeria deJcayi sent me from Winches-
ter, Ind., contains thirteen eggs, five of which are in the left ovary, the re-
mainder in the right. The eggs have apparently not attained their full
ovarian size. Another specimen (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17966) of this species,
taken by Dr. D, S. Jordan, at Cumberland Gap, Tenn., about midsummer,
is a foot long, and has in it eleven eggs, the hindermost three of which are
in the left oviduct. Each egg is about three- eighths of an inch in length
by one-quarter in short diameter. Another specimen (U. S. Nat. Mus., No.
17967), which was taken at Irvington, contains eight eggs in the oviducts,
each including a ver)' immature embryo an inch and a half in length. The
eggs are about half an inch long. The membranes are extremely thin.
I find a few notes on the breeding habits of Ileterodon platirldnos, the hog-
nosed snake, viper, or spreading adder, as it is popularly known. Some of
these contain statements which, to me, appear exaggerated. Dr. J. Schneck,
of Mount Carmel, 111., reports! that eighty-seven "young spotted spreading
adders" were taken from the body of a wounded female. The author of
the note did not see this done, but got his information from persons who
did see it. I am strongly inclined to believe that the reptile was a Tropido-
notus sipedon. Another writer {; in Pennsylvania gives an account of over
one hundred young snakes issuing from a wound in the side of a female
-Proc. A. A A. S., 1873, p. 184.
tProe. Phila. Acad. Sci., 1S74, p. 110.
tAmer. Nat., Vol. XVI, pi 1008.
iiAiner. Nat., Vol. Ill, p. 555. »
115
spreading adder. These young were each from 6 to S inches in length, and
all were active and blowing vigorously. Neither did the author of this
note see the escape of the snakes, although he did see sixty- three of the
young in alcohol. There may easily have been an error in the determina-
tion of the species to which these young snakes belonged. One who has
examined the eggs of this species can not easily believe that so many
young snakes could, with such readiness, escape from a wound in the
mother's side. Moreover, these snakes deposit their eggs in the earth some
time before the young are ready to lead an independent existence.
Dr. Bumpus {op. cit., p. 364) states that a female Ileterodon in the National
Museum brought forth one hundred and eleven young; but Dr. Bumpus
kindly informs me that he did not himself observe this.
Prof. F. ^y. Cragin reports * the finding, on September 10, of twenty-two
eggs of this species. They were buried in the sand at East Hampton, Long
Island. Two of the eggs, which he had in his possession, hatched four
days afterwards. Troost appears to have dissected a black specimen, in
which he found twenty-five eggs. Dr. C. C. Abbott sayst that he has fre-
quently in May found the eggs of the hog-nosed snake in considerable
numbers, a few inches below the surface of the ground ; and in early July
he once found a family of 17 very small, and apparently just hatched,
young. These resented all interference, snapped, hissed, and flattened
their heads precisely as an older snake would do. The size of the young
is not given, but in another place {op. cit. p. p^ 295) he impliefe that they
were less than 4 inches in length. I think that this species, like most
other species, produce their young rather later in the season ; but I see no
reason for not believing that some individuals may bear their eggs over the
winter and lay them in the spring.
A female (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17951), sent me from Veedersburg, Foun-
tain county, Ind , contained fifteen eggs, the posterior four of which lay in
the left oviduct. I could discover no signs of embryos. Each egg was cov-
ered by a thick, tough, yellowish coat, inside of which was a thinner and
more delicate membrane.-
Through the kindness of Dr. L. Stejneger, curator of the department of
reptiles in the National Museum, I have been enabled to make some obser-
vations on the eggs and living young of this Heterodon. On the 3 1st day of
last August, there were brought into the laboratory of the Department, from
-Amer. Nat., Vol. XIII, p. 710.
t-Rambles, etc., p. JSii.
116
some point in Maryland not far from Washington, a lot of twenty-seven
eggs, which the finder said were the eggs of the copperhead. It was re-
ported that the egi^s were thro^vn up out of the ground by the plow, and
that the mother snake was near by and had resented the disturbing of her
treasures. She had been killed, but had not been sent along with the eggs.
Since it was supposed that the copperhead produces living young, the occu-
pants of the laboratory were anxious to learn if this opinion were err ne-
ous. Accordingly one of the eggs was opened, and in it was found a young
hog nosed snake, fully develope'l, and ready to assist himself on the stage
of action. This Heterodon quite closely resembles the copperhead, and most
people are not accustomed to make nice dis'^inctions among snakes. This
close resemblance may account for some of the statements of the large
number of young produced by the copperheads.*
The eggs referred to were between an inch and a quarter and an inch and
a half long, an I about seven-eighths inch in short diameter. The egg cov-
ering was thick, tough, and flexible, resembling a piece of parchment.
There is little if any deposit of lime in it. Of thes-i eggs, some were found
to have hitched during the night of September 6. Others, which were
buried somewhat deeper in some clay, esi^aped from the eggs later; but all
were out by the afternoon of the 8th. The length of such as were meas-
ured varied between 7 and 8 inches. From the moment of escape from the
egg all were quite active, and manif'^sted many of the characteristics of the
adults. Some of the little fellows were quitt* saucy, and would make a pre-
tense of striking at the approaching finger ; but their efforts in that line
were rather feeble. A faint hiss was sometimes uttered, but that may not
have been voluntary. One would sometimes flttten its head and body and
rear up with the anterior third of its length free from the ground. If one
did not know well their inoffensive natures, one would be excused for fear-
ing to handle them. An extremely singular habit possessed by the adults
is that of feigning death. On being struck or teased they will roll over
and over, as if in the intenseet agony, and then throw themselves on the
back and lie there as if dea'l. Out of some fifteen of the young experi-
mented with, I succeeded in getting only two or three to go through with
this performance, but these did it to perfection. On being lightly struck a
few times, they would turn over on the back, writhe about a while, and
then lie perfectly still. If turned right side up, they would again turn on
the back. If left undisturbed for a little while they would turn over and
Amer. Nat., Vol. XVII, p. 1235.
117
creep slyly away. The others of the young would not act in this way, how-
ever much they were teased. It would be interesting to know whether all
the adults possess this odd habit, or only a portion of them.
The cuticle of the young Helerodnns is shed very shortly after their escape
from the egg- coverings. Within a few minutes after one had left its prison
the skin was observed to be broken about the head. It had left the egg at
half-past ] and by 4 o'clock the skin was pushed back half the length of
the body. The next morning the skin was wholly slied, revealing the
brighter colors of the new skin. While getting rid of the cuticle the little
reptile kept crawling over the clay and among the roots of grass.
The opportunity was embraced to observe the use which is made of the
egg-tooth. The tooth itself is easily seen in the just-hatched snake. Its
lateral borders are more nearly parallel than those of the tooth of Bascanion
figured by Weinland. Seen from the side, the anterior or upper outline is
concave, the posterior outline convex. Thus, the tooth projects forward
and is turned slightly up. The anterior face is also concave from side to
side, so that there is, on each side, a distinct cutting edge. The tip is cut
off square. The tooth appears to have a ligamentous attachment, and may
be lifted a little, but not much depressed. It seems quite evident that the
tooth is first engaged in the egg-covering and then made to do its work by
a forward push of the head. An examination of the covering, after the
snake has left it, gives ample proof that it has been cut and not merely
torn. The edges are as smooth as if they had been slashed with a razor.
A long slit is sometimes made as if by a single effort. In other cases, sev-
eral attempts appear to have been made before the covering has been open
enough for the snake to get out. In one or two cases, a tooth has not been
inserted deeply enough, and the only result was a scratch on the inside of
the covering. The egg tooth having performed its office becomes loose and
drops out. This occurs usually within twenty-four hours.
When the slit has been successfully made, the little snake may sometimes
be seen pushing its head carefully out as if to survey the surroundings.
Should there be any movement, the head will be quickly withdrawn!
I have been able to collect some facts concerning the pairing of the sexes
of Heterodon platirhinos. Prof. U. O. Cox, of Mankato, Minn., informs me
that he found two individuals uniting some time in May. A second male
was entwined with the two other snakes. The latter were separated with
difficulty. The male intromittent organs are described as being of an oval
form, an inch long and over a half inch thick.
118
Two observers have seen ])lack specimens, formerly called H. nigcr, pair-
ing with the spotted individuals. Prof. W. S. Blatchley •' found a black
and a spotted one copulating on April 19. He speaks in a letter to me of
the intermittent organs as being as large as a walnut, and covered with
spines. IMr. E. K. Quick, of Brookville, Ind., an accurate observer of na-
ture, writes me that he once found a black viper pairing with a spotted one.
The time, he thinks, was late in .Tune. The time of gestation of this
species is not known. It maj' continue from spring until autumn. Possi-
bly the late-pairing individuals may retain their eggs until the next spring.
Nor do we know how long the eggs are laid before they are ready to hatch.
These matters are known concerning very few of our snakes, and a wide
field is ottered for work and observation.
Of the Colubers, I have been able to make observations on C obsoletus
alone. It is likely that others have observed and written on the subject,
but I have not met with their statements. Dr. G. B. Goode reckonsf this
species among those which are ovoviviparous, but I am inclined to question
this. My son, W. P. Hay, captured two of these snakes, near Indianapo-
lis, while they were in sexual union. This was on June 19. The male (U.
S. Nat. Mus., No. 1794S) was 5 feet 5 inches long, the female (U. S. Nat.
Mus., Xo. 17949) (> feet o inches. When they were separated, the intromit-
tent organs of the male were everted some o inches. A dissection shows
that the hollow portion of the organ extends behind the vent 3 inches,
while the retractor muscles form a cord which extends back nearly to the
tip of the tail. At the base of the evertible portion, near the vent, the in-
ner surface, which when the organ is everted becomes the outer surface, is
furnished with numerous plications. Near the middle of the organ are
found many hooked papilla, some of them large and horny. The remain-
der of the organ has the surface raised up into numerous anastomozing
folds, Eo that under the microscope it reminds one of the reticulum of the
ox's stomach. On opening the female I find in her sixteen eggs. Of these
eggs, four lie about the middle of the animal's body, while the other
twelve occupy a much more anterior position ; the one farthest forward be-
ing within S inches of the tii^ of the snake's snout, the hindermost one
only 9 inches farther back. Several of these eggs are lying apparently
loose in the body cavity. It might be supposed that they had just left the
ovary and were about to enter the oviduct; but they are surrounded each
•'Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., 1891, p. :>i.
tl'roc. A. A. A. S. 187:"., p. 185.
119
with a covering nearly as thick and tough as that of the egg of the Hetero-
don. Could these eggs have have been in the oviducts and then squeezed
out into the body cavity during the time of being entwined with the male ?
The thickness of the egg covering makes it appear to me highly probable
that the eggs are destined to be laid before the young will be mature
enough for independent existence.* t
Some years ago, in midsummer, I found a number of the eggs of the
house enake which had been deposited in a pile of stable manure. This
was in Bureau county. III. Xo record was kept of the number of the eggs,
but a few of them (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17955) were preserved in alcohol.
When found, the eggs were glued together into one mass. Each egg is 2
inches long and nearly an inch and a quarter in the short diameter. On
the outside is found a thick, leathery, yellow covering, beneath which is a
much thinner coat. From one of these eggs I have taken a young snake
which measures lOi] inches in length. Attached to this embryo is a con-
siderable mass of yolk, a condition which indicates that the embryo is not
ready for hatching. Nevertheless, all the generic and specific characters
are well shown. There is a well-developed egg-tooth. The intromittent
organs are everted in the specimen examined. I^ach consists of a rather
slender and twisted basal stalk, at the end of which is the swollen glans.
This is acorn-shaped at the base, but terminates, at the dietal end, in two
blunt lobes. The base of the glans is densely spinose, the remainder re-
ticulately papilose. The seminal groove winds around the basal stalk and
terminates at the tip of one of the terminal lobes, the larger one.
Concerning the breeding habits of the black-racer, Bascanion constrictor,
I find little in print. It is well known that the young differ markedly
from the adults, being decidedly spotted. Dr. Weinland, as already stated.
'•'■Since the above has gone to press, I have had the opportunity, April 29, of dissecting a
recently raptured female, the length of which was 4 feet 4 inches. The ovaries lie in the
region situated about two thirds the distance from the head to the vent. Each oviduct
ends close to the corresponding ovary. It seems evident, therefore, that at least some of
the eggs of the specimen described above are really lying loose in the body cavity. In
the specimen dissected, the ovarian eggs are very immature, none of them exceeding
about a quarter of an inch in length. It may be of some interest to add that this female had
the anterior three- fourths of the body ornamented with blotches of a decided red color,
the red occupying both the surfaces of the scales and the skin between them. The
blotches were separated by scales which were partly yellow. Soon after death a great
part of the red disappeared. The stomach contained eight wild mice, six of them young.
1 1 am able to state that Coluber obsohfas is oviparous. Mr. Thomas Marron, of the Na-
tional Museum, early in April, 1889, collected a number of snake eggs in a hollow stump
near the Potomac river. They were opened and found to contain fully developed young
of this species, (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 15334).— Leonhard Stejneger.
120
described the egg-tooth. In one female, taken near Indianapohs, I find
nineteen egge, seven of which Ue in the left ovary. These eggs are quite
immature.
Some alcoholic eggs (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17956) of this species from an
unknown locality furnish some points. They, are of the usual elongated
oval form, an inch and a half long and close to an inch in short diameter.
The outer covering is thick and tough, and it is furnished with numerous
hard points, as if of deposits of lime salts. Within the egg is a young racer
lOo inches long and evidently nearly ready to come forth. The intromit-
tent organs of this specimen are somewhat flattened, broad at the extremity,
and with prominent terminal angles. The organ begins to expand from its
base. It is furnished plentifully with spines. When the sexes unite,
when the eggs are laid, how concealed, and when they hatch, are some of
the things which we need to learn.
I have examined a specimen (U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 17969) of Haldea stria-
tula from some point in Arkansas. It is 92 inches long and contains five
eggs, each with a young Haldea in it. Only the hinder most egg is in the
left oviduct. This is a little over an inch long, but the others are only a
little more than three-quarters. The short diameter of the egg is about
a quarter of an inch. The embryos are far from mature, being only 24
inches long when extended. They have a considerable mass of yolk still
attached to them. The egg-coverings are very thin. This circumstance
causes me to conclude that the young are brought forth alive. A series of
sections through the snout of an embryo reveals the presence of the usual
ogg- tooth.
Some observations on the tui!tles of the (iems malaclkmys. By O. P.
Hay.
Of the turtles belonging to the genus Malarlevu/s there are now recog-
nized five species, two new ones having been described within recent years
by Dr. G. Baur. The genus is a very distinct one, and is distinguished
from Chrysemi/s especially by the extremely broad and flat crushing surfaces
of both upper and lower jaws. As a result of the provision made for the
support of these wide, horny, masticatory plates, the internal nares are
thrown far back, so as to lie behind the level of the eyes. In the Catalogue
\-2l
oi the Chelonians in the British Museum, 188!), Dr. G. A. Boulenger eays
that the " pjastron is extensively united to the carapace by suture, with
feeble axillary and inguinal peduncles, the latter ankylosed to the fifth
costal plate." Sometime ago I macerated a large specimen, M. geographica,
until the whole plastron fell away from the carapace, thus showing that
there was no ankylosis of the parts.
The Map tortoise, M. geographica, wag described by the naturalist Le
Sueur, in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy for 1817. In the M6-
moires du Museum de Paris for 1827, Le Sueur presented the description of
another species of this genus from specimens which he had taken in the
Wabash river, at New Harmony, Ind. Neither figure nor systematic name
accompanied the description, although he appears to have had a name in
manuscript, pseudogeographica. It is evident that Le Sueur had in mind
the terrapin, which has for the most part gone by that name since then,
although the description is in some respects erroneous. The first mention
that I find of this manuscript name of Le Sueur is found in connection
with the Emi/s lesueurii, described by Dr. J. E. Gray in his Synopsis Rep-
tilium, 1831. It is also given by Dumeril and Bibron in Erp^tologie G6n^r-
ale, vol. II, p. 256, as a synonym of Emyx geographica, with the remark,
"jeune age." In his work, Herpetology of North America, published in
1842, Dr. Holbrook recognized the fact that this terrapin is distinct from
the earlier described geographica, and gave to it the name that Le Sueur
had bestowed on it in his manuscripts. He also accompanied the descrip-
tion with a colored plate. It is from this date, 1842, that we must reckon
in determining the tenability of the name j)seudogeographica.
In ISol Dr. J. E. Gray, in his Synopsis Reptilium, p. 31, published a de-
scription of a species which he called Emi/s lesueurii. This supposed new
species was founded on either a specimen of geographica or on one of what
Holbrook afterwards called pseudogeographica. Dr. Gray himself, in all his
subsequent publications, wrote down the name lesueurii as a synonym of
geographica, although previously to the publication of his Catalogue of the
Shield Reptiles he did not recognize Le Sueur's pseudogeograjihica as being
distinct from the earlier described geographica.
In 1857 Louis Agassiz, in his Natural History of the T'nited States, ar-
ranged both the species referred to under the genus fjraptemys. Of his
G'raptemys lesueurii he say : " This species is commonly called Emi/s pseudo-
ijeographica, but the specific name Le Sueurii is older. It is evident from his
reference that Gray at first applied the name of Emi/x Le Sueurii to thia
122
species, and not to Gr. (jcographlca ; now Gray calls it also Emus pseudo-
(jeographica" Since that time Prof. E. D. Cope, in his Check List of 1875,
employed the name used by Holbrook, but ISlr. F. W. True, in Dr. Yar-
row's Check List of 1S82, adopted Agassiz's suggestion and called the spe-
cies MahACoclemys hioieurii.
Since now the name by which we are to know the species called by Le
Sueur and Holbrook psendogcographica depends on what Gray had before
him when he described his Emiis lesuenrii it becomes necessary, if possible,
to determine that matter. More certainly depends on that than on Gray's
references to any previous writings.
Among other differt-nces existing between the two species of 31<daclemi/s
referred to here, is one which enables us in all cases to distinguish them.
This is found in the form of the yellow spot which lies on the side of the
head just behind the eye. In M. geograpldm this spot is broad, rather tri-
angular, and elongated in the direction of the head. In the other species
the spot is a transverse streak, running behind the eye and sometimes curv-
ing forward below it. Now, in his description of Einy» lesueurii, Gray has
this language : " Temporibus macula triangulari notatis." At the end of
his description he further says: '^ Emys geographica of Le Sueur agrees
with the museum specimen, except in that the first vertebral plate is not
urn- shaped, and Le Sueur does not notice the triangular temporal spot."
In that remark we have evidence that Gray had before him but a single
specimen and that that specimen had the " ear-mark " of geographica. We
further learn why he described it as different from Le Sueur's species.
That Gray was at this time aware of the existence of Le Sueur's manu-
script name appears from the following words at the end of the descrip-
tion:
'' ;5 Scutello vertebral! primo urceolato." Emys geographica. Lesueur. Jour. Acad.
N. S. Phil. t. £?»j/.sj).sewdo(jfeo£fr«jj/aca, Lesueur Mss. (Mus. Paris).
This is probably the reference that Agassiz alludes to, and it is hard to
see why Gray introduces it here; but it no more proves that he had Le
Snenr^s pseud ()g(vgra2)hic( I in mind than the other species. Indeed, he re-
garded them as both the game thing. Furthermore, in his Catalogue of the
Shield Reptiles, he refers this ^5 to jisrudogeogrdphicn, while his lesuexrii is re-
ferred to geograpliiv'i. It is evident that he regarded what he placed under
yj as different from the species he was describing. I make the suggestion
that the quotation marks were put in front of the ^j through an error of
writing or printing. As to the characters assigned to lesueurii, I submit
that they apply much better to M. geograplnca than to p><eudngeographica.
123
The subsequent history of these two species, so far as Dr. Gray is con-
«^-erned, is as follows: In the Catalogue of Tortoises, published in 1844, he
regards both pseudogeographica and lesneurii as synonyms of gciMirapMca. He
does not appear at this time to have seen Dr. Holbrook's work of 1842. In
his description of the geograjMca of the Catalogue of Tortoises, Dr. Gray
says of the head- spot only that it is " a yellow streak on the temple." In
making this description he had before him two specimens, which according
to his plan, he designates as a and b. Was either of these the one on
which he had in 1831 based the species h'sueurii ! This is of some import-
ance and will presently be considered.
By the time of the publication of the Catalogue of kShield Reptiles, in
1S55, Dr. Gray had undergone another change of mind. He now recog-
nized the existence of two entirely distinct species, and these he designates
as Emi/s cjeographka and E. jufcwJoiieographka. Of the latter species there
were then in the British Museum seven specimens, five of which had cer-
tainly been received since 1844. The other two are distinctly stated to be
the ones which had been recorded as (( and h under Emys geographica in the
work of 1844. Of Emys geographica, on the other hand, there was in 1855
only a single specimen in the Museum and that is expressly said to be the
one which furnished the description of E. lesueurii in 18ol. Even then
Gray seemed to be a little doubtful about its being the same as Le Sueur's
geographica, but his description of it removes all doubt. He contrasts it
sharply with the specimens of pseudogcograpJiica.
All these facts indicate that in 1844, when Gray wrote the Catalogue of
Tortoises, the type of E. lesueurii was not in his hands. It had probably
been misplaced and for the time being lost. The descriptions of that work
had been drawn from two specimens of pseudogeographica. When the Cata-
logue of Shield Reptiles was written, the specimen had been recovered,
and Gray was enabled to compare it with specimens of the other species
and with Holbrook's descriptions and figures. It is spoken of as ''animal
dry from spirits," "the Museum specimen is in a bad state." Something
concerning its history may be inferred from these remarks.
Dr. Boulenger, in his Catalogue of Chelonians, 1889, accepts the specific
name lesueurii, instead of pseudogeographica. No mention is made of the
specimen which served Dr. Gray as the type of lesueurii.
With the evidence before us, we must, it seems to me, accept the name
pjseudogeograpMca for the species under consideration. To reject it will be
to ignore Gray's statements, repeatedly made, that his lesueurii is a syno-
124
nym of (leographica, as well as the plain language of his descriptions. It
may be a very objectionable name, but the laws of priority must be rigidly
observed.
The masticatory surfaces of M. g(0(jraphica are much broader than those
of M. pxeudogeogra phica, and we might infer therefrom that the food of the
two species is not the same. In \'olume XXII of the Bulletins of the Es-
sex Institute, Prof. Harry Garman has made the observation that the broad
surfaces of M. (jcograpJiiat are employed in crushing the shells of molluske,
the remains of which he found in their stomachs. In the stomachs of
M. psrndogeographicd, on the other hand, he found the remains of a species of
sedge, as well some animal matter. During the month of May, 1891, at a
meeting of the Indiana Academy of Sciences at Lake Maxinkuckee, in
northern Indiana, three or four of us, within a few hours captured about
thirty specimens of 3/. geograpJdca. These specimens were almost invaria-
bly taken in the water near the shores of the lake where the bottom was
covered with the shells, living and dead, of Virljiara coiitrctoidcs. Seven of
the terrapins were taken home and kept some days in a washtub partially
filled with water. When they were taken out, there were found on the
bottom of the tub large numbers of the opercula of that water snail. In the
alimentary canal of one terrapin were found these opercula, as well as the
remains of crayfishes, and what appeared to be the cases of some species of
caddis- worm. The masticatory surfaces of the older specimens were found
to be much worn. The crushing surfaces of Dr. Baur's recently described
M. ocuUfcra are rather narrow, while the cutting edges of the jaw are very
sharp. The indications are that the food does not consist of mollusks, but
rather of some soft vegetable and animal substances.
Most, if not all, the species of this genus are extremely variable in the
size of the head. In the paper referred to above, Prof. Garman attempts to
give us the characters that distinguish gcograpJiica from pseudogeograpjhica^
and among such difierential characters is the size of the head relative to
length of the carapace. (Uvgrapldca is stated to have a large head; pscx-
dogeograplika a much smaller head. He also presents measurements that
appear to prove his position. Dr. Holbrook long ago described a specimen
of geographic^ under the name of Emijs megaccpliala, the name being sug-
gested by the massive head. Some years ago Dr. Gray suggested that the
large head might be a sexual character, but he did not state which have the
big heads, the males or females. Through the kindness of Dr. Stejneger,
I have been permitted to examine all the specimens of both species that
125
are in the National Museum, and I have also examined a number of speci-
mens of both the species in my own collection. I find that the size of the
head is not a specific, but a sexual, character, and that it is the females
which have the large heads. The heads of the males are much smaller and
also more pointed. I believe that the same statements are true regarding
the salt-water terrapin, Malademys terrapin, although I have not been able
to examine a sufficient number of specimens to be certain about it. With
regard to the other two species referred to I am quite certain that no ap-
preciable difiierences will be found between them, when we compare speci-
mens of the same size and sex.
Another interesting matter pertaining to most, if not all, the spe< ies of
this genus is the size of the male as compared with that of the female. Le
Conte is the only author who has, so far as I am aware, made the observa-
tion that the male of the salt-water terrapin is small. Of the seven speci-
mens of M. geographica taken by myself at Lake Maxinkuckee, three had
the carapace 3f inches long, while the other four had a length of carapace
ranging from 6!^ to 9 inches. Dissections proved that all the small speci-
mens were males and the large ones females. The same statements are
true of such specimens of M. pseudogeographica as I have examined. All
the specimens of M. oculifera Baur in the National Museum are, judging
from the form of the shell, females ; and they are all large specimens.
Both Agassiz and Baur have observed that the males of Trionyx spiniferus
are smaller than the females. On the other hand, the largest specimen of
Cltehjdra serpentina that I have ever seen was a male, and I believe that the
males of the various speci<-s of the genus Chrysemys, as defined by Boulen-
ger, exceed the females in size.
It is quite characteristic of the species of the genus Malademys to have a
prominent keel along the middle of the carapace, and this is often nodose.
In M. pseudogeographica the keel is nodose al) through life. However, all the
species, so far as we know, have these elevations along the keel when young.
In some of the young of the salt water terrapin I found that the nodosities
were especially large and globular. They resembled greatly a row of me-
dium-sized peas, four or five in number, lying along the back. The species
M. geographica, having such a nodose keel w^hile young, but losing it as age
advances, must be regarded as attaining a higher stage of development
than pseudogeographica, which retains this embryonic character throughout
life. The young of M. oculifera will undoubttdly be found to have a dis-
tinct and nodose keel.
126
Agassiz {he. cit. p. 260) discusses the various ways in which the different
kinds of turtles get rid of the older layers of the epidermis. He mentions
certain species of fresh-water turtles, among them M. jiseiid()<jeo{/rapMca in
which he observed in the spring the uppermost layer of the dermal plates
to be cast off at once as one continuous, thin, mica-like scale all over the
plate. In a number of very young specimens of M. <jeograp]dca taken at
Lake Maxinkuckee, the outer layer of the epidermis was lifted up from the
underlying layers by a quantity of fluid. This was preparatory, no
doubt, to the casting ofi of the epidermal layer.
The (tryllid.k of Indiana. By W. S. Blatchley, A. M., Terre Haute,
Ind.
The Gryllidw or crickets are, in the main, distinguished from other Or-
thopterous insects, by having the wing covers fiat above and bent abruptly
downward at the sides ; the antennae long, slender, and many jointed :
the tarsi, or feet, three jointed, without pads between the claws ; the ear
situated on the tibia of the fore leg ; and the abdomen bearing a pair of
jointed cerci or stylets at the end.
The ovipositor of the female, when present, is long, usually spear-shaped,
and consists, apparently, of two pieces. Each of these halves, however,
when closely examined, is seen to be made up of two pieces so united as to
form a groove on the inner side, so that when the two halves are fitted to-
gether, a tube is produced, down which the eggs pass to the repository in
the earth or twig, fitted to receive them.
The inner wings are, for the most part, short, weak, and comparatively
useless as flying organs, though, sometimes, they are nearly twice as long
as the outer pair. Like their nearest relatives, the grasshoppers and katy-
dids, crickets travel mostly by leaps and, in the course of time, their hind
femora have thus become greatly enlarged.
The chirps or love calls of the different species of criclcets make up the
greater part of that ceaseless thrill which fills the air, usually at night, from
mid- August until after frost. These sounds are made only by the males,
and are not vocal, as most persons suppose ; but are produced by rubbing
the veins in the middle of one wing cover upon those of the other. The
peculiar structure of this stridulating organ of the male, as well as the high
127
specialization of the ovipositor in the female, have led entomologists to
classify the Gri/llidii' as the highest family of the Orthoptera.
Representatives of nine genera and sixteen species of these interesting
insects from Indiana are in the writer's collection, several of which are ex-
ceedingly abundant throughout the state.
A belief that a brief and popular description of the leading characters of
each of these species, together with some account of their habits, as noted
during a number of years of observation, would prove acceptable to per-
sons interested in the study of such creatures, has prompted the prepara-
tion of this paper. In order to render it as complete as possible for refer-
ence purposes, and thereby aid the younger entomologists of the state, a
synonymy of each species has been compiled from such works as were ac-
cessible and appended to the name of that species. The following is a full
list of the authors and publications to which reference is made in the syno-
nymy given :
Comstock, J. H. — An Introduction to Entomology, I, 188S.
Fernald, C. H— The Orthoptera of New England, 1888.
Fitch, Dr. Asa. — Third Report on the Noxious Insects of New York, 1856.
Glover, Townsend. — Report of U. S. Entomologist in the U. S. Agricul-
tural Report for 1874.
Harris, Dr. T. W. — Treatise on Some Insects Injurious to Vegetation.
Third edition, 1862.
McNeill, Jerome." A List of the Orthoptera of Illinois, Psyche, VI, 1891.
Packard, A. S., Jun. — Guide to the Study of Insects. Eighth edition, 188:5.
Fifth report V. S. Entomological Commission, 1890.
Rathvon, S. S. — In the U. S. Agricultural Report, 1862.
Riley, Dr. C. V.— Orthoptera in the Standard Natural History, II, 1884.
Say, Thomas. — The Entomoltry of North America. LeConte edition,
1859.
Scudder, Samuel H.— Materials for a Monograph of the N. A. Orthoptera,
in the Boston Journal of Natural History, VII, 1862. Catalogue of the
Orthoptera of N. A., 1867. The Distribution of Insects in New Hampshire,
in the first volume of Final Report upon the Geology of New Hampshire
1874.
Thomas, Cyrus H. — Insects Injurious to Vegetation in Illinois, in the
Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society, V, 1865.
Uhler, Philip R. — Orthopterological Contributions in the Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, II, 1864.
■ 128
Walsh, B. D. — In the Practical Entomologist, vols. I and II, 1867.
Various Authors. — Insect Life, vol. II, 1889. Canadian Entomologist,
XXIV, 1892.
The following artificial key will enable the student to more readily dis-
tinguish the different genera of GrylUd.r found in Indiana.
a. Fore tibiae broad, fitted for digging.
b. Length of body more than one-half of an inch. . . II. Gryllotalpa.
i';^. Length of body less than one-half of an inch. ... I. Tridactylus.
aa. Fore tibife slender.
c. Hind femora slender IX. /Ecanthus.
cc. Hind femora robust.
(1. Last segment of the maxillary palpus very nearly
of the same length as the one preceding.
e. Head as broad as or broader than the posterior
margin of the pronotum; color black or dark
brown III. Gryllus.
ee. Head narrower than the posterior margin of the
pronotum; color light brown or dark yellow. . .
VII. Orocharis.
dd. Last segment of the maxillary palpus, very nearly,
or fully, double the length of the one preceding.
f. Last segment of the maxillary palpus broadly
flattened VI. Phylloscirtus.
//. Last segment of the maxillary palpus club-
shaped but not flattened.
g. Ovipositor much compressed, curved strongly
upwards V. Anaxiphus
gg. Ovipositor of the normal form (cylindrical)
curved but slightly upwards.
h. Head as broad as, or broader, than the pos-
terior margin of pronotum IV. Xemobius.
Jih. Head narrower than the posterior margin
of pronotum VIII. Apithe.s.
Family. Gryllid.k. — The Crickets.
I. Tridactylu.s, Olivier (1789.)
To this genus belong some of the smallest of the Gryllidw, no one of the
three species found in the United States being more than 10 mm., or two-
1-29
fifths of an inch, in length. The generic name, Tridactylus, is based upon
the peculiar structure of the anterior tibia? which are much dilated and
arm* d at the end with three strong and sligh'ly curved spurs. The outer
wiogs, or tegmina, are horny and opaque and do not reach the end of the
abdou en, while the inner wings are longer and folded lengthwise like a
fan. The hind femora are enlarged and the insects are active leapers. But
one species has as yet been taken in Indiana, though another one doubt-
less occurs in the northern half of the state.
1. Tridactylus APicALis, Say.
Tridactylus apicalis, Say, Ent. N. A., (Ed. LeConte), II, 239.
Scudder, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 425.
Packard, Guide Stud. Ins., 1883, 563.
Riley. Stand. Nat. Hist., II, 1884, 180.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 3.
This is the largest of the three species occurring in the U. S., its length
being 8 or 9 mm.* The body is deep black, the head and thorax with
some white markings, and the tegmina with their outer edge and a spot
behind the middle white. The hind femora are whitish, with three faint,
dark cross bars. The wings of the male extend three mm. beyond the tip
of the abdomen.
Apicalis, is stated by most of the authorities cited above, to be a southern
species, but has been taken as far north as Quincy, Illinois. In Indiana it
has, so far as known, been noted only in Vigo county, where a few speci-
mens were discovered along the banks of a small stream during the latter
part of October, 1891. They evidently dwell ia little pits or burrows in
the soft sand or mud, as numerous openings of such places were found,
from one or two of which specimens emerged and leaped into the water on
which they floated for an instant and then sprang back onto the bank.
The most of the inhabitants of the pits had, no doubt, been killed by the
frost before the species was discovered, and another season will have to
arrive before anything distinctive of their habits can be learned.
II. Gryllotalpa, LatreiUe (1807). The Mole Crickets.
Among the Gryili Is found in Indiana the burrowing or mole crickets
rank first in size and singularity of structure. When full grown they meas-
ure f roaa an inch and a fourh to an inch and a half in length ; are light
brown in color and have the body covered with very short hairs, giving to it
=-=The measuremems in this paper are usually given in millimetres. An inch is equal
to very nearly 25 mm.
130
a soft, velvety appearance. The females have no visible ovipositor, and, ex-
ternally, may be separated from the males only by the difference in the
veining of the uppermost of the wing covers. By their habit of burrowing
beneath the soil in search of such food as the tender roots of plants, earth
worms and the larvpe of various insects, the anterior tibite of these crickets
have, in the course of ages, become so modified in structure as to closely
resemble the front feet of the common mole, whence the generic name,
Gryllolalpa, from "gryllus," a cricket, and "talpa,'^ a mole. Moreover, the
compound eyes have become very much aborted, being not more than one-
eighth the size of those of the common field cricket, Gryllus abbreviatus, Serv.,
and, as the insect crawls rather than leaps, the hind femora are but little
enlarged. Two species occur in Indiana.
2. Gryllotalpa borkalis, Burmeister. The Northern Mole Cricket.
Gryllotalim borealis, Scudder, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 426.
Id., Dist. Ins. in N. H., 1874, 363, pi. A, fig. 7.
Id., Amer.Nat.,X,1876, 97,(The chirp of set to music).
Thomas, Trans. 111. St. Ag. Soc, V, 1865, 441.
Glover, I^ S. Ag. Rep. 1874, 143, fig. 17.
Packard, Guide to Stu. Ins., 1883, 563.
Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 14, fig. 6.
Comstock, Int. to Entom., I, 1888, 120, fig. 121.
NcNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 3.
Fletcher, Can. Entom. XXIV, 1892, 23, fig. 1.
Doran, Can. Entom., XXIV, 270, (Life history of).
Gryllolalpa brevipennls, Harris, Ins. Inj. to Veg., 1862, 149, fig. 68.
Rathvon, U. S. Ag. Rep., 1862, 378, fig. 12.
The northern mole cricket may be known by the shortness of its outer
wings which are less than half the length of the abdomen, while the inner
wings extend only about one-sixth of an inch beyond them.
In the moist mud and sand along the margins of the smaller streams and
ponds their runs or burrows, exactly like those of a mole though much
smaller, can in late summer and early autumn be seen by those interested
enough to search for them. These runs usually end beneath a stone or
small stick, but the insects themselves are very seldom seen, as they are
nocturnal, forming their burrows by night, and scarcely ever emerging
from beneath the ground.
The note of the male is a sharp disyllabic chirp, continuously repeated
131
and loud enough to be heard several rods away. It is usually attributed,
by those who have given little attention to insect sounds, to the field cricket
or to some of the smaller frogs. They are very difficult to locate by this
note, and the writer has on several occasions approached cautiously, on
hands and knees, a certain spot and has remained silent for minutes while
the chirping went on apparently beneath his very eyes ; yet, when the sup-
posed exact position of the chirper was determined and a quick movement
was made to unearth him he could not be found. Indeed it is only by
chance, as by the sudden turning over of a log in a soft, mucky place, that
a person can happen upon one of them unawares. Even then ({uick move-
ment is necessary to capture him before he scrambles into the open mouth
of one of the deep burrows which he has ever in readiness.
The eggs of the northern mole cricket are laid in underground chambers
in masses of from forty to sixty, and the young are about three years in
reaching maturity. (Jn this account, where they exist in numbers, they
are very destructive, feeding, as they do during that time, mainly upon the
tender roots of various plants. It is therefore fortunate that with us the
species is not more common than it is. It has been noted in Wabash, Tip-
pecanoe, Vigo, Putnam and Monroe counties, and is probably found through-
out the state, though nowhere abundant.
Average measurements, of twelve specimens: Length of body, 33, mm.; of
wing covers, 10 mm.; of wings, 14 mm.
3. Gryllotalpa collmbiana, Scudder. — The Long-winged Mole Cricket.
Gryllotalpa longipennis, Scudder, Bost. Jour., Nat. Hist. VII, 1862,42(5.
Packard, Guide to Stud. Ins., 1883, 563.
Gryllotalpa Columbiana, Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 14.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 3.
This cricket was first described by INIr. Scudder, he. cit., under the speci-
fic name of longipennis which he afterwards changed to Columbia, the former
name being pre-occupied by an East India species of this genus.
It appears to be very rare in Indiana, a single male specimen captured in
Clinton county, being the only one known from the state. Packard, he.
cit., says that it is a southern species, but it has since been recorded from
Illinois, Iowa and Kansas.
In size and general appearance it closely resembles G. borealis, but it may
be known from that species by the much greater length of the wings
which extend, in the specimen mentioned, 10 mm. beyond the tip of the
132
abdomen ; and by the longer and more slender teeth of ihe anterior tibise.
Nothing of its habits is known to the writer, but they are probably nearly
or quite the same as those of the preceding species.
Length of body, 28 mm.; of wing covers, 12 mm.; of wings, 24 mm.
III. Grylus, Linnivus (1758). The Field and House Crickets.
To this genus be'ong those dark colored, thick-bodied crickets, mature
specimens of which are so abundant from late summer till after heavy
frosts, beneath logs, boards, stones, and, especially, beneath rails in the
corners of the old-fashioned and rapidly disappearing Virginia rail fences.
Three species of Gryllus are known to occur in the state.
4. Gryllus abbreviatis, Serville. The Short-winged Field Cricket.
Acheta abbreviata, Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg., 1862, 152, fig. 69 .
Rath von, U. S. Agr. Rep., 1862, 380, fig. 15 .
Thomas, Trans. 111. St. Ag. Soc, V, 1865, 442.
Walfh, Practical Entomologist, I, 1866, 126.
Gryllus abbreviatus Scudder, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 427.
Packard, Guide to Stud. Ins., 1883, 564.
Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 15.
Comstock, Intr. to Entom , I, 1888, 121, fig. 108 a.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 5.
This is the most common and familiar species of the genus occurring
in the state. The males have the wing, covers usually reaching to the
end of the abdomen, but those of the females are much shortened and
reach but little beyond its middle. The wings are sometimes wanting but
are usually present and much shorter than the wing covers. The oviposi-
tor is almost as long as the body, and the hind femora are exceedingly
thick and have a b^ick red spot at the base on the under side.
Each of the authorities cited above, who says anything of the life his-
tory of this cricket states that the eggs are laid in the ground in autumn
and hatch the following summer, but the writer has, many times, taken the
half grown young from beneath logs in late autumn and in mid winter.
On such occasions they are usually found in a dormant condition, each one
at the bottom of a cone shaped cavity which it has formed for itself, and
which is very similar to the pits made in loose sand by the larva of the
ant lion, Myr meleon obsoletus, Sa.y. Many specimens which had evidently
moulted twi e were tak^-n thus on February 8th, 1890, and during the
three months just passed, (Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1891), the young have
138
been noted in numbers each time the woods were visited, though no ma-
ture specimens have been seen since October 20th. The young seen in
winter are not numerous enough to develop into the mature specimens of
the succeeding autumn, and, in my opinion,* those eggs which are laid in
early fall hatch and the insects hibernate in the burrows mentioned above ;
while the greater number of eggs, deposited later, do not hatch till the fol-
lowing season.
The short- winged field cricket is nocturnal, omnivorous, and a cannibal.
Avoiding the light of day, he ventures forth, as soon as darkness has fallen,
in search of food, and all appears to be fish which comes to his net. Of
fruit, vegetables, grass and carrion, he seems equally fond and does not
hesitate to prey upon a weaker brother when opportunity offers. I have
often surprised them feasting on the bodies of their companions, and of
about forty imprisoned together in a box, at the end of a week but six
were living. The heads, wings, and legs of their dead companions were all
that remained to show that the weaker had succumbed to the stronger —
that the fittest, and in this case the fattest, had survived in the deadly
struggle for existence.
Average measurements: Females — Length of body, 24 mm.; of poster-
ior femora, 15 mm.; of wing covers, 11 mm.; of ovipositor, 22 mm. Male —
Length of body 21 mm,; of posterior femora, 14 mm.; of wing covers,
11 mm.
5. Gryllus LicTuosrs, Serville. The Long-winged Cricket. The House
Cricket.
Gryllus luctuosus, Scudder, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 427.
Id., Distribt. of Ins. in N. Hamp., 1874, 363.
Thomas, Geol. Surv. Terr., 1871, 433, pi. I, figs. 10,
11.
Packard, Guide to Stud. Ins., 1883, 564.
Fernald, Orth. N. E., 1888, 15.
Comstock, Intro, to Eat., 1888, 121.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 4.
This is a species of wide range, occurring throughout the entire United
States, but it appears to be somewhat rare in Indiana, having been taken
only in Vigo and Parke counties. From the preceding species, which it
"Since verified by a letter received from Dr. C. V. Riley, in which he states that " the
periods are very irregular and the egg laying undoubtedly continues for a considerable
space of time."
134
almost equals in size, it is readily distinguished by the shorter ovipositor
of the female, and by the greater length of the inner wings which, in both
sexes, extend about 7 mm. beyond the tip of the abdomen.
Mature specimens have been taken as early as June 1, so that it, also,
must winter in the larval state. Tt seems to be more fond of the society of
man than any other species, and is the one which was usually heard chirp-
ing about the hearths of the large, old-fashioned fire-places. It is often
found about houses and barns in towns and cities, and a number of speci-
mens have been secured by the writer from beneath electric lights.
All the measurements of both this and (/. abbrevlatus, exceed those given
by Mr. Scudder, in his paper in the Boston .Journal, loc. cit., yet, otherwise,
Indiana specimens fully agree with the descriptions.
Measurements: Male and female — Length of body, 21 mm.; of posterior
femora, 13 mm.; of ovipositor of female, 14 mm.
6. (trylh s I'ENNsvLVAxici ,s, Burmcistcr.
Gryllus pennsylvanicus, Scudder, Bost. .Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862,429.
Thomas, Trans. 111. St. Agr. Soc. V, 1865, 443.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 4.
Several females of a short, broad-bodied cricket have been taken in Vigo
county, which are evidently distinct from either of the above members of
this genus, and are referred with some doubt to this species. The wing
covers reach to the end of the abdomen while the posterior femora and
ovipositor are much shorter than those of the two preceding species. The
body in the longest specimen measured but 1") mm., and the wings of all
were very much abbreviated or absent. They were taken in September
from beneath logs.
Average measurements : Length of bodj^ 14 mm.; of wing covers, 10
mm.; of posterior femora, 8 mm.; of ovipositor 7 mm.
IV. Xemohius, Serville (1839). The Striped Ground Ci'ickets.
Of all the ( iryllidee which occur in the Northern states, the little brown
ground crickets are the most numerous and the most social. I'nlike their
larger cousins, the field crickets, they do not wait for darkness before seek-
ing their food, but wherever the grass has been cropped short, whether
on shaded hillside, or in the full glare of the noonday sun along the beaten
roadway, mature specimens may be seen by hundreds during the days of
early autumn. They are all of small size, being never more than half an
inch in length. The color is a dark brown, and the bodies and legs are
135
sparsely clothed with brown hairs. The head is broad, the ovipositor of
normal shape, and the last segment of the maxillary palpus is twice the
length of the one preceding it, whereas in the species of Gryllus the two
segments are of equal length. Three species of Xemobius occur in Indi-
ana.
7. Xemobius vittatus, Harris. The Wingless Striped Cricket.
Acheta vittata, Harris, Ins. Inj. to Veg., 1862, 152, fig. 70.
Rathvon, U. S. Agr. Rep., 18G2, .380, fig. Ki.
Nemobius vittatus, Scudder, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1802, 430.
Id. Dist. of Ins. N. H., 1874, 364, (Chirp set to music).
Thomas, Trans. 111. Sfc. Ag. Soc, V, 1865, 443.
Scudder, Am. Naturalist, II, 1868, 115, (Song of).
Packard, Guide Stud. Ins., 1883, 564.
Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, Ki.
Comstock, Int. to Ent., I, 1888, 121.
In both sexes of this, our most abundant species, the inner wings are
wholly wanting. In the female the wing covers are dark brown, about half
the length of the abdomen, and have many rather coarse, whitish, parallel
veins; whereas in the male they are light brown, reach to the end of the
abdomen and have but few reticulated veins. There are usually three nar-
row, blackish lines on top of the head and one along each side of the pro-
thorax, but all of these are sometimes very dim or wholly wanting.
These small crickets are omnivorous, feeding upon all kinds of decaying
animal matter as well as upon living vegetation, freshly dropped cow dung
being also especially attractive to them. When disturbed they are very diffi-
cult to capture, making enormous leaps with their stout hind legs, no sooner
striking the ground than they are up again, even if not pursued, until they
find a leaf or other shelter beneath which to take refuge.
From their enormous numbers, as well as from the fact that they are con-
stant, greedy feeders from the time the eggs hatch in spring until laid low
by the hoar frost of autumn, it follows that they must be classed among our
most injurious orthoptera, but as yet no effective means for their destruc-
tion have been discovered.
Mr. S, H. Scudder, in an article entitled the "Songs of the Grasshoppers,"
has given the following pleasing account of the sounds made by this species :
"The chirping of the striped cricket is very similar to that of the black field
cricket; and may be expressed by r-r-r-u, pronounced as though it were a
18G
French word. The note is trilled forcibly, and lasts a variable length of time.
One of these ineects was once observed while singing to its mate. At first
the song was mild and fret^uently broken ; afterwards it grew impetuous,
forcible and more prolonged ; then it decreased in volume and extent until
it became quite soft and feeble. At this point the male began to approach
the female, uttering a series of twittering chirps ; the female ran away, and
the male, after a short chase, returned to his old haunt, singing with the
same vigor but with more frequent pauses. At length finding all persuas-
ions unavailing, he brought his ^^erenade to a close."
Average measurements: Length of body of male, !• mm.; of female, 12
mm. ; of hind femora, 9 mm. ; of ovipositor, 9 mm.
8. Nemobus exiguus, Scudder. The Lesser Striped Ground Cricket.
Nemobiu>i e.nguvs, Scudder, Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 429,
(Not Acheta exigua, Say.).
Xemobius fasciatus exiguus, Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 16.
Also a very common species and found in company with the preceding,
the habits of the two being essentially the same. From vittatus it may be
known by its much smaller size, lighter color, and by the last two segments
of the maxillary palpus being white. Moreover the ovipositor is much
shorter, being only one-half to two-thirds the length of the hind femur,
whereas in vittatus it is fully as long as that segment. A careful examina-
tion of a large number of specimens leads me to believe that these differ-
ences are constant, with no intermediate forms, hence the two species
should be separated.
Length of body, male, 7 mm. ; of female, S mm. ; of hind femora, 6 mm. ;
of ovipositor, o to 4 mm.
9. Nemobius fas( iatus, DeGeer. The Long-winged Striped Cricket.
Nemobivs fasciatus, Scudder, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 436.
Fernald, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 16.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 6.
This species has not been seen by the writer within the boundaries of the
state ; but Scudder, he. cit., says that it has been taken at Delphi, Indiana.
From the two preceding species it may be known by the presence of the
inner wings, which extend beyond the end of the ovipositor. McNeil, loc.
cit., records it as being common about the electric lights at Eock Island, Illi-
nois.
137
V. AxAxiPHCs, Sauesure (1874).
Our native species of this genus are very small crickets resembling those
of Nemob'us in form of body, breadth of head, etc. ; but having the ovipos-
itor very much compressed and curved strongly upwards as in many of the
common species of Locustid:v or katydids.
10. AxAxii'iii.s PULicAKUs, 8aussure.
Anaxipha pulicaria, ^McNeill, Psyche VI, 1891, (>.
Head andpronotum brick red in color, sparsely clothed with long hairs;
wing covers and legs very light brown ; abdomen and ovipositor darker.
Both sexes are wingless, but the wing covers of the male are well devel-
oped, fully covering the abdomen, while those of the female reach but
little beyond its middle. The cerci are exgeedingly long, tapering, and
covered with fine yellow hairs. The hind femora of the males are propor-
tionally much longer than those of the females as will be seen by the fol-
lowing measurements:
Length of body — male, (i. 5 mm., female, 8 mm.; length of posterior fe-
mora— male, (5.5 mm., female, 6 mm.; length of ovipositor, 3.5 mm.; of an-
tennic of male, 32 mm.
This handsome little cricket was first taken in the state on Aug. 26,
1891, at Kewanna, Fulton county, where it occurred in small numbers
among the sphagnum mosses growing in a tamarack swamp. On Sept. ii,
it was found in Vigo county, 135 miles farther south, about the borders of
a large pond. Here it was abundant in isolated spots on the leaves and
stems of the arrow a\nm, Peltandra nndulatu, Eat. It is very active and
diflicult to capture, and, on account of its small size, is doubtless over-
looked in many localities where it occurs in abundance. It is not described
in any of the works to which I had access, and specimens were sent to
Prof. Lawrence Bruner, Lincoln, Neb., who kindly identified them for me.
VI. Phylloscirtus, Guerin. (1846).
The members of this genus are small crickets which have the head
broader than the prothorax. They may be readily known from all other
( Jryllids by having the apical joint of the maxillary palpus flattened, oval,
and much longer than the preceding joint which is triangular. The ovi-
positor is somewhat compressed and curved upwards.
11. PiiYLLOsciKTi s piLCHEi.i.us, Uhler. The Handsome Cricket.
Phyllopalpus pulchellvs, Uhler, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., 11, 1864, 544.
Phylloscirtus pukhellus, Riley, Stand. Nat. Hist., II, 1884, 183.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, (i.
188
This is the only species of the genus known to occur in the eastern
United States, and is the most brightly colored of all our native crickets.
In the living specimen the head and thorax are crimson, the wing covers a
shining pitch black, while the thick hind femora are almost transparent but
become white in alcohol. The wing covers reach the end of the abdomen,
and the wings are almost as long. A single female specimen was taken on
September 6th, from a leaf of the button bush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, L.,
near the border of a large pond in Vigo county. When discovered it was
motionless, but was vibrating its large maxillary palpi in a very rapid and
curious manner. It is a southern species but has been recorded from New
York and Illinois, and probably occurs in low wet woods throughout the
southern half of this state. According to T^hler, it is found most frequent-
ly " amongst the grass and low bushes near ditches where it jumps about
with great rapidity.''
Measurements: Length of body, S.5 mm.; of ovipositor, 3.5 mm.; of pos-
terior femora, 6 mm.; of antennte, 18 mm.
VII. Orociiaris, Uhler (1864).
The members of this genus have the head slightly narrower than the
base of the pronotum; the maxillary palpi with the third segment longest,
cylindrical ; the apical one a little longer than the one preceding, enlarged
gradually from the base, obliquely truncate. Both wing covers and wings
are longer than the abdomen. The posterior femora are less thickened
and the body less robust, longer, and flatter, than in the preceding or the
following genus.
T2. Orochakis SALTATUR, Uhler.
Orociiaris mltator, Uhler, Proc. Ent. Sec. Phil., II., 1864, .^45.
Riley, Stand. Nat. Hist., II, 1884, 182.
Apitlu's McNeilli, Blatchley, Canadian Entomologist, XXIV, 18i>2, 27.
General color, after immersion in alcohol, dull brownish yellow, the
male the lighter. A dark brown stripe reaches from the eye along the side
of head and prothorax to posterior border of pronotum. The wing covers
each with a small brown spot at base ; those of the female with many cross
veinlets which are darker than those running lengthwise, giving the dor-
sal field a checkered appearance. In the male the vein separating the dor-
sal field of the wing cover from the lateral is yellow ; in the female the
yellow is broken by a number of oblong dark spots. All the femora are
rather thickly marked with small, dark spots; those on the posterior pair
139
being arranged in regular rows. The wings extend 2.5 mm. beyond the
tip of wing covers. Measurements: Female, length of body, 16 mm.; of
wing covers, 14.5 mm. ; of posterior femora, D mm.; of ovipositor, 12 mm.
Male, length of body, 14 mm.; of wing covers, 12.5 mm.; of posterior fe-
mora 7.5 mm.
A single pair have been taken in Vigo county. The female was secured
Oct. 21, 1891, from the lower leaves of a golden rod, SoUdago latifolia,'L.,
which grew in a thick, upland woods. The male was taken just a year
later from the under surface of a leaf of prickly ash, Xanthoxylum ameri-
canum, Mill, It Jletv. from one leaf to another and, before its capture, was
thought to be a species of Blattidx, so flat did its body appear.
Not having Mr. Uhler's paper when the female was taken it was sent to
Mr. S. H. Scudder, of Cambridge, Mass., for identification. He returned it
with the statement that it was, in his opinion, " an undescribed species of
Apithes, allied to A. azteca, Sauss, and very different from A. quadrata, Scud-
der." On the strength of his statement, and prematurely on my part, it
was described as new in the Canadian Entomologist, loc. cit. Having since
secured Mr. Uhler's paper diagnosing the two genera, Apithes and.Orocharis,
a. careful comparison with the descriptions therein proves it to belong to
the latter genus ; and, although diflFering somewhat in the details of color
and measurement from Uhler's description of saltator, yet the differences
are not sufficient, in my opinion, to make of it a distinct species. It has
heretofore, been recorded, as far as I can ascertain, only from the south-
eastern United States.
VIII . Ai'iTHES— (Hapithus), Uhler (1804).
Thick bodied crickets resembling in general form the members of the
genus Gryllus but having the head narrower than the posterior margin of
the pronotum. The maxillary palpi with the apical segment as long as the
2d and 3d together. The wing covers do not reach the base of the abdo-
men and the wings are much shorter,
i;'.. Apithes agitator, Uhler.
Hapithus agitator, Uhler, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., II, 1864, 546.
Riley, Stand. Nat. Hist., II, 1884, 183, fig. 258.
A short, heavy-bodied cricket ; dull reddish brown in color, with the
vein, separating the dorsal field of the wing cover from the lateral, a yel-
lowish white. The top of head and pronotum, and the surface of all the
femora densely covered with brownish-yellow hairs. Measurements : Fe-
male, length of body, 11 mm.; of wing covers, 7.5 mm.; of posterior femo-
140
ra, 9 mm.; of ovipositor, S mm. Male, length of body, 10 mm.; of poste-
rior femora, 8 mm.
A large number of specimens of this cricket were taken in two localities
in Vigo county, Indiana, during the last half of September. The first ones
discovered were on the slender twigs of some prickly ash shrubs which
grew in a damp upland woods. The place was visited a number of Jimes
and the crickets were always found, perfectly motionless, and immediately
above or below one of the thorns or prickles jutting forth from the twigs.
The tips of the hind femora were raised so as to project above the body
thus causing them to resemble the thorns ; and the color of the insects cor-
responding closely to that of the bark, made them very difficult to discover
even when in especial search of them. On every clump of prickly ash in
the woods mentioned a number of specimens were secured but they could
be found no where else thereabouts. The second locality where they were
discovered was about the roots of a scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, Wang,
which grew on a sandy hillside. Here they were plentiful, and resting
motionless in the depressions of the bark or beneath the leaves in the cavi-
ties formed by the roots of the tree.
Of all the males taken, over thirty in number, there was not one with
perfect wing covers, and, in almost every instance, the wing covers as well
as the rudimentary wings were wholly absent; while every female had
both pairs unharmed. I at first ascribed this wing mutilation to the males
fighting among themselves, but finally discovered a female in the act of
devouring the wings of a male. Why this curious habit on the part of the
one sex ? Possibly the females require a wing diet to requite them for
their bestowed affections, or, perchance, they are a jealous set, and, having
once gained the afi'ections of a male, devour his wing covers to keep him
from calling other females about him. Quien sabe f
Agitator is said to be common in the middle and southeastern states. The
eggs of the female are there deposited in twigs of the white elm, Ulmus
Americana, L., and the insects are very active at night, running and jump-
ing about on the trunks of various trees.
IX. (EcANTHus, Serville ( 1831 ).
From the other Gnjllidx of the state the members of this genus may be
known by their slender hind femora, their narrow, elongated prothorax, and
their whitish or greenish- white color. The wing covers of the females
are wrapped closely about the body, while those of the male are much
141
firmer in texture, broadly spread out, and very transparent ; causing such
a diflference of appearance between the two sexes that tyro collectors often
take them for widely different insects. Three species have, so far, been
collected in the state, and two others very likely occur, but have not yet
been taken.
14. fficANTHcs NivEL>i, DeGeer. The White Climb'ng Cricket.
(Ecanthus niveus, Harris, Ins. Inj. Veg., 1S62, 153, figs. 71, 72, (In part).
Fitch, Third R^p. Nox. Ins., N. Y., 1856, 86.
Scudder, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., VII, 1862, 431.
Rathvon, U. S. Agr. Rep., 1862, 381, figs. 17, 18.
Thomas, Trans. 111. St. Ag. Sor., V, 1865, 444.
Walsh, Prac. Entom., I, 1866, 126; II, 1867, 54, 94.
Scudder, Dist. Ins. in N. H., 1874, 365, (Note of, set to
music).
Glover, U. S. Ag. Rep., 1874,143, fig. 16.
Packard, Guide Stud. Ins., 1883, 564, figs. 561, 562.
Id., Rep U. S. Eat. Conn., V, 1890, 230, 591, figs. 75, 76.
Fernakl, Orth. N. Eng., 1888, 17, figs. 7, 8, 9.
Comstock, Intr. Ent., I, 1888, 122, figs. 109, 110
Murtfeldt, Inst ct Life, II, 1889, 130, (Carnivorous hab-
its of).
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 6.
Both sexes of this species are in color ivory white, more or less tinged
with a delicate green, especially in the female. The top of head and basal
joint of antennae are usually suffused with ochre yellow, while on the lower
face of each of the two basal join's of the antennae is a small b'ack spot.
The ovipositor of the female is ^hort, perfectly straight and usually tipped
with black. The maxillary palpi are longer in this than in any other spe-
cies of the genus and the wing covers of the male are broader in proportion
to their length than in any other except 0. latipennis, Riley.
Measurements : Male, length of body, 13 mm. ; of wing '-overs, 13.5 mm. ;
width of wing covers, 6.5 mm. Female, length of body, 14.5 mm. ; of wing
covers, 14 mm. ; of ovip isitor, 5.5 mm.
The white climbing cricket is very common throughout the state, and
mature specimens are to be found in numbers abi ut grape viuf s, shrubbery,
etc., from August 1st till November, In my experience the females appear
more plentiful than the males, the latter being more often heard than seen.
142
During the day they keep themselves hidden among the foliage and flow-
ers of various plants, but as night approaches they come forth and the male
begins his incessant, shrill, chirping note, which he continues with little or
no intermission till the approach of morning warns him to desist. Prof.
McNeill, in Psyche, loc. cit., has given an excellent description of the songs
of the diflferent species of Oecanthus. "That of niveus," he says, "is the well
known t-r-r — r-ee: t-r-r — r-e-e, repeated without pause or variation about
seventy times in a minute. It is heard only at ni»ht and occasionally on
cloudy days, but in the latter case it is only an isolated song, and never the
full chorus of the night-song produced by many wings whose vibrations in
exact unison produces that characteristic 'rhythmic beat,' as Burroughs
has happily phrased it."
The females of niveus do much harm by ovipositing in the tender canes or
shoots of various plants, as the raspberry, grape, plum, peach, etc. ; no less
than 321 eggs, by actual count, having been found in a raspberry cane 22
inches in length. The eggs are laid in autumn and at first the injury is
shown only by a slight roughness of the bark, but afterwards the cane or
branch frequently dies above the puncture, or is so much injured as to be
broken off by the first high wind. If the injured and broken canes con-
taining the eggs be collected and burned in early spring the number of in-
sects for that season will be materially lessened.
Niveus, however, in part if not wholly, offsets this injurious habit by its
carnivorous propensities, as the young, which are hatched in June, feed
for some time upon the various species of aphides or plant lice which infest
the shrubbery they frequent. Mr. B. D. Walsh, in the Practical Entomolo-
gist, loc. cit., was the first entomologist to call attention to this carnivorous
habit, but it seems little attention was given to the matter. Recently,
however, it has come up again, and in Insect Life, for November, 1891, Miss
Mary E. Murtfeldt, of St. Louis, Mo., has given a most interesting account
of some experiments and observations concerning it which were made by
her. From this article the following extract is taken: "Some leaves of
plum infested with a delicate species of yellow aphis were put into a jar
with the young of Oecanthus niveus, but attracted no immediate attention. As
twilight deepened, however, the crickets awakened to greater activity. By
holding the jar against the light of the window, or bringing it suddenly
into the lamp light, the little nocturnal hunters might be seen hurrying
with a furtive, darting movement over the leaves and stems, the head
bent down, the antennro stretched forward, and every sense apparently
143
on the alert. Then the aphides provided for their food would be caught
up one after another with eagerness and devoured with violent action of
the mouth parts, the antennse meanwhile playing up and down in evident
expression of satisfaction. Unless T had provided verj' liberally not an
aphis would be found in the jar the next morning and the sluggish crickets
would have every appearance of plethora."
15. OEcAXTHi s FAsciATUs, Fitch. The Striped Tree Cricket.
(Ecanthus fasciatus, Fitch, Third Rep. Nox. Ins., N. Y., IS5(), 96.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 6.
(Ecanthus niveus, Harris, Ins. Inj. to Veg., 1862, 154, (In part),
liathvon, U. 8. Ag. Rep., 1862, 381.
In its general form this insect resembles the preceding, but it is always
darker in color, varying from a deep black to ivory white with fuscous
markings. Most specimens, however, are greenish white with three black
stripes on the head and pronotum and a broad dusky line along the center
of the abdomen beneath. The wing covers of the male are less broad in
proportion to their length than in niveus ; while the ovipositor is longer
and more distinctly turned upwards at the end than in that species.
Measurements: Male— Length of body, 14 mm.; of wing covers, 11. "i
mm.; width of wing covers, 5.5 mm. Female — Length of ovipositor, 6.5
mm.
In Indiana this species is fully as common if not more so than 0. niveus.
It is more frequently found on wild plants than that species, being, in au-
tumn, an abundant visitor of sun- flowers and golden rods. Mature speci-
mens were taken in Putnam county, as early as August 9th.
16. (Ecanthus angistipennis, Fitch. The Narrow-winged Tree Cricket.
(Ecanthus angustipennis, Fitch, Third Rep. Nox. Ins., N. Y., 1856, 95.
McNeill, Psyche, VI, 1891, 8.
This species is readily distinguished by the narrowness of the wing cov-
ers of the male, their breadth being just about one third their length. The
wings are longer than in either of the two preceding, extending in one
specimen at hand, 9 mm. beyond the wing covers. The head and protlio-
rax are less prominent, and the latter is much narrowed anteriorly. The
general color is an ivory white, rather deeply tinged with greenish.
Measurements: Male — Length of body, 13 mm.; of wing covers, 11.5 mm.
width of wing covers, 4 mm.
Angustipennis probably occurs in all parts of the state but is much less
144
common than either niveus or fasciatus. A fully developed male was taken
from a leaf of an iron weed, Vernonia fasciculata Michx., on August 11th.
This completes the list of Gryllidni so far known to have been taken in
the state. Other species undoubtedly occur, and it was a desire to awaken
an interi st in the family and so lead, if possible, to their discoverj% which,
in the main, prompted the preparation of the present paper.
The species most likely to occur, but which have not, as yet, been noted
are: Tridactylus terminalis, Uhler; Tridactylus minutus, Scudder; CEcan-
thus latipennis, Riley ; (JEcanihus bipunctatus, De Geer, and one or two species
of Myrmecophila, which are the smallest crickets known. They resemble
closely the young of cockroaches and inhabit the nests of ants. The writer
will be pleased to receive specimens of Gryllidos and other Orlhoptera from
any part of the state, and will return the names of those sent to all who
may so desire.
Biological Laboratory,
Terre Haute, High School.
Entomologizing in Mexico. By W. S. Blatchlkv.
The OUTLOOK in the warfare against infection. By Theodore Potter.
Our present knowledge concerning the green triton, diemvctylus viri-
descens. By 0. P. Hay.
The green triton, or newt, Diemyclylus viridescens, has been before this
academy for discussion at a previous meeting. Since that time there have
been some accessions to our knowledge regarding it. This pretty and harm-
less newt probably inhabits all parts of the state, but I have n<.t found it
abundant anywhere, though no doubt it is plentiful in suitable localities.
145
It is quite common in the Eastern States, and has been studied a good deal
by the naturalists there, to whom it has presented some interesting prob-
lems. It is interesting because of its position near the top of the order Uro-
lela. Salamandrina perspicHlata, of Europe, is very closely related to it ; but
since the digits of the hinder foot of that species are reduced to four, it
must be regarded as standing higher than ours, which has five digits.
The newt has given the systematists a good deal of trouble, a fact result-
ing, as in so many other cases, from a lack of knowledge regarding its life-
history. Formerly there were believed to be two entirely distinct species,
the one living on the land and being of a red color, the other living entirely
in the water and being of a general greenish color. Rafinesque, who first
described these animals, placed the two forms under different subgenera.
Baird saw that they must be included under the same genus, but regarded
them as distinct species. Dr. Hallowell seems to have been the first to re-
gard them as belonging to the same species. For a long time, in fact until
very recently, they have been regarded as being varieties of the same spe-
cies. A few observers have, within a few years, claimed to have seen the
red land form transform into the aquatic stage, and some have thought that
they saw indications of a change of the aquatic animal into the terrestrial
form. Hence, it was supposed that the differences were due to seasonal
changes. It was supposed that the animal went into the water to deposit
its eggs, took on the characters peculiar to that state, and afterwards, when
the breeding season was over, again sought the land and became red again.
At the 1891 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, at Washington, Prof. Gage, of Cornell University, read a paper
which gave the results of his studies on this animal for some years. His con-
clusions, in brief, are that all the modifications that the animal undergoes
belong simply to different stages in the development of one and the same
individual. The eggs are laid in the water and hatched in due time. For
some time the young have gills, like any other well regulated Urodele.
When a length of about an inch and a half has been attained, they leave
the water, having lost their gills, and betake themselves to the land. They
then assume a red color, varying from orange to blood-red, the tail becomes
round and the skin usually rough. Here they appear to remain until they
are about three years old, hiding under rocks and logs, and appearing after
rains. When the season of sexual maturity arrives, they go again into the
water, and, according to Gage's opinion, remain there the remainder of
their lives, unless the pools dry up or food becomes scarce. Prof. Gage's
10
14(i
paper has appeared in the American Naturalist for December, 1891, illus-
trated with a colored plate.
During the past summer, before I knew of Prof. Gage's work on the newt,
I attempted to solve the question about the tAvo forms of the animal by a
study of the specimens in the National Museum, about two hundred and
fifty in number, and from all parts of the country. I reasoned that if there
were two varieties of the animal we ought in a large collection to find
them both in all stages of growth ; if the red form was only the young stage
of the animal then the green aquatic specimens ought to be all larger than
the red ones. One of the first things that I discovered was that there
was not a single character on which I could depend as a means of distin-
guishing the two forms. Neither redness, nor roughness, nor lack of tail-
fin, belonged to the land form alone. Of some it seemed to be impossible
to say with any certainty to which form they ought to be assigned.
Nevertheless it was apparent that the red or miniatus form reached a max-
imum length of a little over three inches, while the undoubted viridescent
form ranged from a little less than three inches up to four or more. Yet
a breeding male of the viridescent form was found to be only two and
three-fourths inches long. On the whole, it seemed clear that at a cer-
tain stage the red, land form must enter the water and assume characters to
some extent different from those possessed while on land.
As to the color of the aquatic form, olive is the prevailing tint. Yet
many have more or lees red mingled with it, and not a few are decidly red.
It is probable that none of those which have betaken themselves to the water
are as scarlet as those living on the land, yet they must come pretty near
it. As to the purpose of the coloration assumed in the water, it is not diffi-
cult to see that it will be highly protective to an animal that dwells amid
green vegetation ; but why the land-dwellers should be so conspicuously
red is not so easily decided. No concealment seems to be sought here. It
is possible that the land form is a distasteful morsel to such animals as it
comes in contact with, and the color is developed as a warning signal.
Those who have the opportunity to experiment with them ought to en-
deavor to settle the question. The salamanders are given to eating all such
animals, and the red young of the newt might be offered to Ambystoma tigri-
num, for instance, in order to determine whether or not the latter would eat
the young newt.
There are some interesting matters connected wtth the size of the larva^
at the time of the transformation. Prof. Gage states that he has never seen
147
a larva at this period less than three centimeters long or more than four,
while some of the bright red ones are only five centimeters long, that is,
two inches. Now in the national collection I found larva- yet with remains
of gills, and some of these larva? were two and three-fourths inches long.
These were from .Jersey City, N. J. Not long ago Prof. Gage sent me a spec-
imen for examination, which he had taken at Wood's HoU, and this one is
fully as large as those I have mentioned. The smallest red specimens men-
tioned by Prof. Gage are two inches long. Some of the red specimens seen
by me at Washington were only an inch and a half, an inch and three-quar-
ters, and one only an inch and five-sixteenths long. Here we have evidence
of very great variation in the size of the larvse at the time of transforma-
tion. I believe also that there is, during the transformation, a considerable
shrinkage in the size of the whole body. Such shrinkage occurs during the
transformation of Amhy stoma microstomum, and probably of most salamanders.
Thus, while we are gradually getting at a correct knowledge of this in-
teresting animal, the green triton, or newt, it is a good subject for further
study.
The proper systkmatii- name ok the prairie rattlesnake. By O. P. Hay
The jn.iND crayfishes of Indiana. By W. P. Hay.
The Crustacea ok Indiana. By W. P. Hay, M. S.
The following list of the crustaceans of Indiana is to be regarded as a
first contribution to the knowledge of this interesting group. Although it
represents the labor of quite an extended period, the labor was confined
mostly to the central part of the state, and to the larger forms ; and there
still remains the great multitude of microscopic forms only a few of which
are here numbered. It is for the purpose of directing the attention of the
148
Indiana Academy to this interesting and much neglected part of our fauna
that this paper is written.
Camharuii argillicola Faxon. Very common in central Indiana. It is
very similar, both in appearance and habits, to its near relative, C. diogencs.
Like this latter species, C argillicola burrows and raises mud chimneys at the
mouth of its hole. It is apparently of smaller size than C. diogenex, the largest
specimen measuring barely 2^ inches from the rostral spine to the end of the
tail. The bearded hand spoken of by Dr. Faxon in his monograph is
hardly a constant feature. Indeed, of all the specimens which have come
under my notice at least half, without distinction as regards sex, were with-
out the beard. The eggs are laid in the early spring, often, it seems, before
the females retire to their burrows. A small female bearing eggs was taken
from a pond April 2, and a female with young was dug from a burrow
April 20. The burrows were excavated in the tough clay, near a pond, to
a depth of about 2^ feet.
Cambarus bartonii Fabricius. This species will probably be found to
occur throughout the state. It is much more common, however, in rocky
localities than elsewhere. It is a cave-loving species, occurring in nearly
every one of the caverns of southern Indiana. I have often observed
both it and C. pelluddus in the same cave.
Cambarus hlandhigii Hagen. A number of specimens from English Lake
seem to be this species, though they may be the following, which is re-
ported by Dr. Faxon.
Cambarus Uandingii var. acuta Faxon. This species is reported from
Wheatland, Knox county.
Cambarus diogenes Girard. In early spring this is the most conspicuous
crayfish, both by its abundance, large size, and fine coloraticm. The females
far surpass any other species in the different colors, which are beautifully
blended. As they are strictly a burrowing species, they are to be found only
during the breeding season, which begins about the first of April. At this
time they are very common, even in the daytime. At night they are abund-
ant. Thirty-five large specimens were collected in one evening, April 2, 1892.
Of this number twenty-nine were males and six females. A number of fe-
males found in copulation were separated from the rest to observe the time
elapsing before the eggs were laid. The first eggs were laid April 18, while
another specimen of the same lot, with well developed but unlaid eggs,
was killed and dissected April 20.
After the breeding season they retire to their burrows, and for the rest of
145)
the year their presence is known only by the chimneys which they raise
over the mouth of the holes.
Cambarus immunis Hagen. This species is exceedingly abundant dur-
ing the summer in muddy ponds. They burrow into the mud on the dry-
ing up of the ponds. T have never observed them in running water.
Cambarus pellucidus Tellkampf. The common blind crayfish occurs in
many of the caves of southern Indiana. They are usually small, the larg-
est I have ever seen, among 40 specimens, being barely 2 inches in length.
They are kept from extinction only by the inacessibility of their home.
They are very conspicuous when in the water, and are very easily caught.
When startled they are utterly at loss where to go, and often dart out upon
the shore. I think it may be safely said that as a rule they grow spinier as
one advances southward, although there are exceptions. A female col-
lected in Wyandotte Cave is almost without spines ; but three specimens
from a small cave near there are exceedingly spiny.
Cambarus pellucidus var. trstii Hay. This crayfish, although at first
thought to be a distinct species, is probably only a variety of the preceding,
characterized Ijy the entire absence of spines. There are no teeth on the
rostrum or spines on the sides of the carapace, things never lacking in the
common species. The type specimens, 12 or 13 in number, were collected
in Mayfield's cave, near Bloomington. They have since been received from
Truett's cave, in the same county.
Cambarus propinquus Girard. This is apparently the common species
throughout the state. In the central portion it is very abundant at all sea-
sons of the year, being almost invariably found in running water. The
median carina on the rostrum, one of the characteristic marks of the spe-
cies, may vary from a long ridge to a mere papilla-like elevation. The
color in life is a dingy dark olive. The tips of the cheLc are sometimes
red, and the spines on the rostrum brown.
Cambarus putnami Faxon. In his " Monograph on the American Asta-
cidjB," Dr. Faxon mentions the probability of this species occurring in the
southern part of the state. I have specimens taken between Paoli and
Wyandotte cave, in the summer of ISSS.
Cambarus rusiicus Girard. This species, which is very like propinquus,
is tolerably common. It has been collected at Madison and at Indianapolis.
Cambarus sloanii Faxon. The only known locality for this species in
Indiana is in the region about New Albany.
150
Cambams virilis Hagen. Is verj^ common and widely distributed in the
northern part of the state. I have also found it at Irvington.
Pahemon ohionis. Smith. The river shrimp has been taken in large
numbers in the Ohio at Lawrenceburg. It will probably be found to occur
in the lower Wabash and possibly some of the other large streams in the
south of the state.
Allorchestes dentata Smith. This small crustacean was taken on one oc-
casion from a small pool along Fall creek, north of Indianapolis. It has
also been observed by Prof. S. A. Forbes in northeastern Indiana.
Crangom/x gracilis Smith, ^'ery common in stagnant water in central
Indiana. I have never observed it in the streams. Early spring is the
beet collecting time for this crustacean, as it then attains its largest size.
Crangonyx packardi Smith. I have not yet collected this species, but it
is said to be common in the southern portion of the state.
Crangoni/x mncronatus Forbes. This interesting species, I think, will
be fourid to occur over a large portion of Indiana. I have found it under
logs in a swamp near Irvington, have taken it from at least one well in the
vicinity, and have observed and collected it in nearly every cave in Mon-
roe, Lawrence, Crawford and Harrison counties.
Mancasellxs tenax Harper. An exceedingly large and abundant species
which may be found in early spring in the water courses. I have often ob-
served it in stagnant water, but in running water, as at the mouth of a
tile drain, they may be collected by the hundreds.
Ascllus communis Say. This species appears to take the place of the
preceding species in the ponds. I have rarely observed it in running
water, but in early spring it is very common in the ponds about Indianapolis.
Asellus stygins Packard. This interesting blind AseUus I have found in
two wells, three or four miles north of Irvington. It is also very common
in the caves, but does not appear to grow to so large a size as those taken
from the wells.
Scyphacella putea W. P. Hay. This very curious and remarkable crus-
tacean is as yet undescribed, but is here included. The type specimens
were obtained from a well in Irvington. Soon after the specimens were
taken the well was cleaned, and no crustaceans have been observed since.
Its nearest relative is Scypliacella arenicola, a salt water crustacean.
Branchipus rernalis Verrill, In the central portion of the state, about
Irvington, this beautiful crustacean is very abundant. In one sweep of the
151
net I have taken over a hundred of them. It has also been taken at
Bloomington, Ind.
Bi-anchipxs gellidus W. V. Hay. Abundant at times about Irvington.
It was described February, 1883, in the American Naturalist, from speci-
mens collected in the early spring of that year. On the drying up of the
ponds it disappeared, and although careful search was made every winter
after, it was not seen again till April, 1892, when it was again found to be
common. It is much smaller than B. vernalis, and seems to congregate in
little groups of 15 to 20. They are very delicate and die soon after capture.
Euphiloscia elrodi Packard. This is the only " sow-bug " described from the
state, although several species are common.
Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes. At times so common as to give the pond
water a pinkish color. I have observed it only about Irvington.
Daphnia rosea 8ars. ^'ery abundant, in company with other species, in
ponds about Irvington.
Ceriodaphnia quadrangvla. Common, in company with other species, in
ponds about Irvington.
Ceriodaplmid cristata Birge. Occurs frequently with the two preceding
species.
Cyclops parens Herrick. Collected from ponds about Irvington.
Ci/clops insedus Forbes. Collected from ponds about Irvington.
It will be seen that so far thirty-one species of crustaceans have been
collected from the state. A little careful search would doubtless more than
double the number.
XoTKs ON KLAi's iTi.vrN. By A. J. Bi(;ney.
About two years ago a very beautiful snake was taken to the drug store
of V. W. Bigney, at Sunman, Ripley county, Indiana; it having been found
near Milan, in the same county. It was preserved in alcohol and a little
more than a year ago it was sent to me for identification. After carefully
examining it I pronounced it to be the Flaps fulvius, or bead snake, be-
longing to the order of the Harlequin snakes.
A careful study has revealed some interesting tacts. The order to which
this snake belongs is very widely distributed, being found not only in North
America but also in Southern Asia, Australia, South America, and the isles
lo-2
of the sea. The warmer regions are their regular home. In the United
States it is found in Virginia, Georgia, Florida, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico,
and Arkansas. Xo mention is made of its being found further north than
Virginia and Arkansas. Only one species inhabits North America, but
there are several varieties, distinguished chiefly by the arrangement of the
colored bands. This snake is ordinarily found in the ground in sweet
potato fields. The question naturally arises, How came it so far north ?
Has it ever been found in this state before? Was it carried here and
escaped? I am rather inclined to the latter view. If, however, it has
been found in this state by other parties, then this view is evidently
erroneous.
The specimen under consideration is about 25 inches long. It has more
than 200 gastrostroges, which are entire, and the urostroges bifid. The
anal plate is also bifid. Dr. Jordan, in his " Manual," speaks of it as being
entire. This is evidently an exception to the rule, and this plate is, there-
fore, somewhat variable. The snake has seventeen bands of crimson,
bordered by yellow. The occipital band is yellow and the bands on the
tail also have no red. It has no loral plate, but in another species it is
present. It has two fangs in the upper jaw, which are hollow, and on the
front side there is a permanent groove ; back of these fangs are small teeth.
The Elaps fulvius is classed among the venomous by Dr. .Jordan. If any one
has found another specimen in the state I shall be glad to learn of it.
Some oBSEJiyATioxs ox iiei.odkkma suspectum. i>y D. A. Owen, Moore's
Hill College.
About the middle of last May the museum of Franklin College came into
possession of a fine specimen of Hdoderma auspectum or "Gila monster,"
from Sacaton, Arizona. This is one of the largest of lizards, and the only
one in America reputed venomous.
The specimen received is eighteen inches long from the tip of his snout
to the end of his tail, which is six inches long and of an uniform diameter of
about one inch and a half until within a short distance of the end, where it
terminates in a blunt point.
The body is beautifully marked by black and fiesh colored tubercular
scales, much resembling Indian bead work. Its habits are very sluggish,
153
and not infrequently whole days are spent in sleeping. This is almost
universally the case during very cloudy weather. Its food has consisted
of raw eggs, of which three or four are consumed in a week. Sometimes it
will eat an egg each day for two or three days, and then will touch noth-
ing for nearly a week. The method of taking this food is by suction, as-
sisted by sliding back and forth its flat, forked tongue. When the eggs
were given without first breaking the parts, it was very difficult to swallow,
the food would be forced out through the nostrils and some time would be
spent holding the head elevated so that gravity might force it down the
throat.
Other foods were offered, but in no case were they touched.
Although its native home is in that arid region where rain seldom falls
in abundance, it showed a special fondness for water. It would frequently
lie in a pan of water during the whole day. At times, when the appetite
made no demands for the food, he would frequently crawl into the pan, as
if he preferred to take it by absorption.
In breathing, there seemed to be a full expansion of the lungs every 50
or GO seconds. The air is then expelled, as it seems, in a kind of pulsations.
These pulsations are seen on each side of the neck and vary from fifteen to
thirty per minute. But during the torpid state, which began about the
middle of October, there appears to be no full expansion of the chest, but
respiration is conducted wholly by this pulsation. If, however, the animal
be disturbed, the air is immediately forced out of the lungs with a sound
very much resembling a deep sigh.
The moulting began about the last of July or the first of August, and was
not completed until the last of September. The skin was removed in pieces,
beginning about the middle of the body.
In regard to the nature of the vermin and the fatality of the bite there
is little to ofter that is new. The result of experiments, however, seem to
cast some doubt upon the idea formerly held that the action of the poison
was very rapid.
The first animal that was bitten was the common tiger salamander. In
this case there was no more deleterious efl^'ect than would have occurred
from the bite of any other animal. The same thing was true with the next,
which was a common toad. In both of these cases, after the bite, the helo-
derma frothed considerably at the mouth and refused to make the second
bite.
The next animal bitten was a rat. After the rat had been bitten two or
154
three times, with seemingly no perceptible effects, it was taken out and
placed in a cage with a rattlesnake, where it was bitten twice, and within
the space of two hours was dead. A second rat, after an absence of a few
days, was put in with the heloderma and was bitten three times ; once upon
the fore leg, and once upon the tail, and again through the lower jaw. The
first two bites occurred before nine o'clock in the morning, the third about
one in the afternoon. At four o'clock the same day the rat seemed all right,
with the exception of being cowed and having a desire to get as far from
the lizard as possible. The next morning, upon observation, the rat was
found dead, and when picked up a greenish fluid ran out of its mouth.
The heloderma, when undisturbed, is a harmless individual, and at no
time was its biting voluntary. But when disturbed he elevated his head
with mouth open, giving forth the aspirate sound of hah, and if at this time
any thing is placed within his open mouth, the jaws immediately close
upon it. The biting is simply holding fast for a few minutes. There are
no fangs in the upper jaw, as in the rattlesnake, and if there be any poison
it must be from the ordinary saliva and depends upon the degree of irrita-
tion of the animal.
Judging from the actions of the two rats bitten, one by the snake and the
other by the lizard, we believe the poison in the two reptiles acts differ-
ently. From the death struggles of the one bitten by the rattlesnake there
appears to be a paralysis of the respiratory organs, while from the stupor
which appeared to take hold of the other, we judge in that case to be a
paralysis of the circulatory organs.
Some ohservatioxs ox photomicrograimiv. By D. W. Dennis.
Contributions to a knowledge of the grain toxoptera (toxoptkra
GRAMiNi'Mi. By F. M. Wekster.
155
BVFFALU 6XATS (sIMULID.k) IN INDIANA AND ILLINOIS. By F. M. WkHSTKR.
In his "Guide to the Study of Insects," p. 1)91, and again in his " Our
Common Insects," p. 73, Dr. A. S. Packard acknowledges the receipt of ex-
amples of a buffalo gnat from Prof. J. T. Cox, State Geologist of Indiana.
In this notice it is not stated whether the examples were taken in Indi-
ana, or in Illinois, where the author accuses the insect of causing the death
of horses on the prairies.
The late Dr. E. K. Boardman, of Stark County, Illinois, wrote me some
years ago of the former occurrence of these gnats in his State, as follows :
" I spent the summer of 1843 here on Spoon River. The settlers used to
watch for the appearance of the buffalo gnats every year, and they usually
came from the 10th to the 20th of May, from the Winnebago Swamp. That
year it was about the 12th or 15th of May, when we were planting corn,
that a neighbor rode up and told us to look to our stock, as the gnats were
coming. In less than an hour the cattle and horses came tearing in off the
prairie, the former bellowing with pain, the latter kicking and throwing
themselves on the ground, and rolling to rid themselves of their tormentors.
The gnats did not usually remain more than four or five days at the longest,
and often not over twenty-four hours, when a wind w^ould carry them oft.
" When they used to come in such numbers, I have known them to run
stock from here, thirty or forty miles down the Henderson River, and when
the stock were recovered they would be so used up by running as to be al-
most useless. The deer used to leave the swamps about the time the gnats
appeared, and take shelter along Spoon River, often coming in droves, and
when hard pushed would take to the water.
"The gnats came more like a swarm of bees than anything else I can
compare them to. I never saw them at Pawpaw, DeKalb county, nor do I
recollect of seeing or hearing of their occurrence here, for the last thirty
years — since the swamp has been drained and pastured."
The following, from a letter received several years ago from Mr. John
Marten, at that time residing in Decatur, Illinois, will give additional in-
formation as to the distribution of Simulium in Illinois, and also add a
valuable hint as to remedial measures for the relief of stricken animals.
" I have found the buffalo gnat in Edwards county, llUinois. In the spring
of 1883 or 1884, I do not now remember which, two, and possibly more,
horses were killed in that county. During both seasons the gnat was found
there. Farmers from Richland and Lawrence counties, north of P^dwards,
lo(j
complained of the pest. My observations were too limited to say more than
these general things.
" My father-in-law, before his death, told me that in former years the
gnats had been very troublesome in Edwards county, and that whenever
he had been called upon to treat cattle or horses they always "recovered.
He condemned, roundly, the notion that the bites of the gnats were neces-
sarily fatal, saying that cures could easily be made by such treatment as
would cause copious urination. He used nitrates and kindred remedies.
He was a practicing physician and thoroughly acquainted with his profes-
sion. . John Marten."
Owing to the obscurity regarding the locality from which Prof. Cox ob-
tained his specimens, it was not until the year ISsn that we had any exact
information as to the occurrence of the buffalo gnat in Indiana ; our atten-
tion being called to the fact by Prof. S. B. Boyd, of Washington, Davies
county, who informed us that these insects occurred along White River in
considerable numbers. With a view of gaining further information respect-
ing this matter, we addressed a letter to Hon. Samuel Hargrove, of Union,
Pike county, from whom we received a reply, not only corroborating Prof.
Boyd, but stating the fact of their occurrence along the Patoka River, also.
On the 10th of November, 188G, we started on a trip to Pike county and
vicinity, by way of Seymour, Jackson county, where we were informed by
Mr. J. A. Peters, an extensive farmer of the bottom lands, that no gnats oc-
curred in that vicinity, but about Bloomfield and Worthington, in Greene
county, they often annoyed stock greatly. From Seymour we went to
Washington, Davies county, where we again met Mr. Boyd, and learned
from him that these gnats infested the bottom lands along the entire west-
ern, and also a portion of the southern, borders of that county.
In White county we examined a portion of the Patoka River, a small
stream wdiose winding course is nearly due west, emptying its waters into
the Wabash River a short distance below the mouth of the White. The
bottoms are wide, and the bed is of clay, the current in low water, as it was
at that time, is rather sluggish, but in high water it is quite swift and cov-
ers the bottoms, which are often cultivated, but fully as often timbered and
grown up with brush. The stream also has more or less drift-wood, stumps,
and other debris in it, but we found no place where this caused any per-
ceivable increase of the current. We examined such of this drift-wood as
we could disengage, but could find no trace of the buffalo gnat in any stage
of development.
1")7
We learned from people residing along this stream, that in 18S2 the gnats
occurred as far up as Jasper, Dubois county, and several mules and horses,
in the vicinity of Bovine, Pike county, died from the effects of being bitten
by gnats. Usually, however, the insects did not occur in that vicinity in
any considerable numbers.
At Hazleton, on White River, in Gibson county, Dr. P. H. Curtner in-
formed me that gnats had appeared, with more or less regularity, every sea-
son for the last seventeen years, being very much more abundant in seasons
of high water during spring time. Localities between Hazleton and the
Wabash River were especially noted for the great numbers of gnats occur-
ring there. Dr. Curtner's facts are of especial value, as he has had several
years' experience with buffalo gnats in Louisiana, during the war, having
been connected with a battery of Federal artillery.
A quite significant fact was noticed, in that wherever the insects were
reported as being the most abundant, the stream was very tortuous, thereby
presenting many narrow points of bottom-land, more or less covered with
trees and underbrush, across which the water flows whenever the stream is
very much swollen. Lumbermen, who are much on the river, say that
where the bottoms have been cleared, gnats are not usually abundant.
Like the Patoka, White River has rather a sluggish current. At Hazle-
ton, the latter is estimated to flow at the rate of about six miles per hour
in ordinary high water ; during low water it is much less.
The following letter adds much to a knowledge of the distribution of
buffalo gnats in southwestern Indiana :
"Makco, Ind., December 21st, 1886.
"Mr. F. M. Webster, Dear Sir : — I am somewhat acquainted with buf
falo gnats. I first find them on the head waters of a stream called River De-
Shee, and also on W'ilson Creek, in the southern part of Harrison township,
Ivnox county, southeast of Vincennes. They are not so much in the White
River bottoms as they are in the low, marshy land adjoining said b ^tt >ms.
I find them in said township, further north, in the vicinity of a low, slug-
gish creek, called Pond Creek. Where the high lands come near the river,
I find none until I get above Eiiwardsport, at the mouth of Black Creek ;
but following that creek in Greene county, I find them abundant in low,
wet land that makes and adjoins said creek, to-wit: Cain Drain, or Dela-
ware Creek, a large mareh in Knox county, Carico Marsh, the Goose Pond,
Bee Hunter Marsh, and Ladies' Creek Marshes, all in Greene county. In
the bottoms, on the west side of White River, you will find plenty of them ;
but above Worthington they have never been known, so far as I have
heard.
158
■"•^he buffalo gnat in his natural state is about one -half as large as the
common house fly. They make their appearance in early spring. A few
days, — with the temperature from forty to fifty degrees — is apt to bring
them. They cannot exercise when the temperature is 32°, but will come
immediately upon the weather's getting warmer. Rain and wet weather
will down him for awhile. His life varies as to the weather. One week of
clear weather, with the temperature from 70 to 80 degrees, ends his exist-
ence. Generally they last from four to six weeks. They are very severe
on all kinds of stock, and run the cattle and hogs, and drive them to the
open ground, where the wind and hot sun has a tendency to drive the
gnats down. They have been known to kill horses by blood sucking, and,
when full of blood, are about as big as two house flies. They never attack
a man.
"As a preventive, we use coal oil, rubbing it on the horse's head, neck,
breast and flanks, as these are the parts generally attacked.
" Yours truly, Dr. R. A. J."
At least two species of Simulium occur in the Wabash River, near New
Harmony, Posey county, in what is known as the Cut Off. This cut oft
has existed since Ijsfore the country was settled, though, in an earlier day
it was much narrower and used as a mill race, an oil painting by LeSuer,
showing it as it appeared :it an early day, is yet in possession of a son of
Robert Dale Owen, residing at New Harmony. The channel has widened
of late years, the bottom being rocky as of old, and at the lower extremity
filled with rocks and bowlders, over and among which the water flows ver\
swiftly. A number of head of stock were killed by gnats in this vicinity
in 1884, and they were quite troublesome in the spring of 1890. On June
12th of the latter year I caught adults in the vicinity, belonging, without
much doubt, to Simulium 2JecKariim, Riley, and feel quite sure that S.
meridionale, Riley, also occurs there. From the number of pupa shells
that, at the time of my visit, were attached to willows and branches of
trees which had been inundated in spring, I judge that adults had been
quite numerous, Larvae were also found in the swifter flowing portions
of the stream, but in limited numbers.
It appears somewhat strange that the only species of Simulia described
hy Thomas Say, for a long time a resident of New Harmony, should be ac-
corded to Ohio, his specimens being from Ohio Falls, near Louisville, Ken-
tucky. It would now appear almost impossible that they should not have
inhabited the lower Wabash, while he was engaged in his entomological
labors and within sight of the locality where they now occur. An almost
parallel case is found in the chinch bug, which Say described in 1831 from
159
a single specimen "taken on the east shore of Virginia," while Prof. S. A.
Forbes, in 16th Report of the State Entomologist of Illinois, p. 50, gives
what seems to be incontrovertible proof that the insect was abundant in
Illinois, within a few miles of New Harmony, as early as 1S23. Therefore
it does not seem improbable that Simulia may not have occurred in the
Lower Wabash, and the Little Wabash, in Illinois, even before Say's resi-
dence at New Harmony, though, in attempting to secure proof of this I
have been less fortunate than Prof. Forbes, as none of the oldest inhabi-
tants about New Harmony can remember of the occurrence of buffalo
gnats, except during recent years.
At the field meeting of the Academy, at Richmond, Indiana, May 12,
1S92, we found another location for these insects, in Indiana, this being at
at Elkhorn Falls, situated five miles below the city. The larv?e, which ap-
pear to be different from any I have collected elsewhere, were found cling-
ing to the rock and also to the algse which overhangs the falls. No adults
were found at the time, and but few puppe.
The development of the vivd'arous fishes of California. By Cari. H.
ElGENMANN.
Recent additions to the ichthyological fauna of California. By Carl
H. Eigenmann and Rosa S. Eigenmann. Published in part in Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1892 and in part in the Annals New York Acad.
Sci. for 1892.
[austract.J
We have prepared an enumeration of the fishes occurring on the Pacific
coast of America, north of Cerros island, and to the depth of 150 fathoms.
The explorations of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross, during
the last three years, have added a large number of species to those previ-
ously known from this region, and our own explorations have added about
as many new forms from San Diego alone as were discovered by the Alba-
tross along the whole coast included in the present paper. These additions,
as well as the extension of the habitat of many species, make the present
list desirable.
Several forms have recently been discovered by the Albatross in deeper
water. Most of these, however, have little relationship to the littoral
fauna and the deeper water has not been sufficiently explored to warrant a
list at the present time.
We have placed the dividing line between the littoral and the bathybial
faunas of this region at 150 fathoms, because all of the genera so far recorded
from this depth have representatives in the shallower water — fifteen to
fifty fathoms. Some of the littoral gen,era, as Sebastodes, have representa-
tives in deeper water, but this is not of general occurrence.
Cerros island is a convenient and natural southern boundary to this
region. South of it few, if any, of the characteristic genera (Sebastodes, genera
of Embiotocidae,) of this region are found. A number of southern forms
extend further north, but the number has not been materially increased
by our explorations at San Diego; on the other hand a large number of
northern forms, or representatives of northern forms, which had not been
found south of Point Conception, were added to the San Diego fauna. The
California fauna has hitherto been divided into a southern and a northern at
Point Conception. This division was the result of insufficient exploration,
and the results mentioned above have made it evident that no definite
boundaries can be assigned for a northern and a southern California fauna.
It is quite evident, and readily admitted, that the fauna of California is
distinct from the Alaskan fauna, and the latter has been added for conven-
ience and comparison only. But four of the species found at San Diego
are also found in Alaska. The California fauna is characterized by the
abundance of species of Sebastodes, of Cottidse and of Embiotocidae. The last
are entirely absent from Alaska, while only a few species of Sebastodes are
found here. The boundary between these two regions lies somewhere
between Sitka and Puget Sound. No Embiotocidae are found at Sitka.
The relative number of species at the principal localities is as follows:
The whole of Alaska 109 species
Puget Sound 106 ','
San Francisco 155 "
Monterey 149 "
Santa Barbara 119 "
San Pedro 82 "
San Diego, including Cortes Banks 168 "
There are known from the entire region 382 species, belonging to 228
161
genera. Of these 116 genera, or more than half, are also found in the
Atlantic ocean, and thirty-two species are found both in the Atlantic and
in the Pacific. The genera having species in both oceans practically
all belong to one of three classes : First, Tropical genera; second, Arctic
genera, whose species are distributed throughout the Arctic seas; third,
Pelagic and other genera having a wide distribution.
Among the remarkable additions made to the fauna of California during
recent years are the following:
Bronchiostoma elongatum, which had been recorded but once, we have
found in large quantities at San Diego.
Khinoptera encenad^e, based on a fragment of a jaw found at Encenada.
Perkinsia, a new genus of herrings.
Six species of Scopelidae.
The albacore Euthynnus pelamys, whose nearest recorded habitat had
been Japan, was found at San Diego.
On Indiana shrews. By Amos W. Butj-er.
Among the smaller mammals is a group of small forms generally known as
shrews or mole mice. These are insect eating forms. They are little mouse-
like bodies. The snout is quite elongated, extending beyond the incisors
some distance. It is naked, and on its sides are to be found the nostrils.
Although these small mammals are very abundant they are not often seen.
They are doubtless most active at night but are not strictly nocturnal, for
examples are sometimes to be found moving about in the bright sunlight.
They feed upon such animal food as comes in their way, chiefly grubs, larvfe,
slugs, terrestrial insects. They are very pugnacious, following mice into
their nests and often attacking them. They also attack and kill each other,
eating the carcass. They eat almost any kind of animal food, but of
vegetation eat little. They are said to be fond of beechnuts, and will,
when starved to it, eat corn, oats, wheat and other grains.
In confinement they have been known to attack and kill mice much
larger than themselves. Their eyes are small, and while not covered, they
can see but imperfectly. Their burrows may be found every wherrf beneath
meadow, pasture and lawn, under the accumulated vegetable mould of the
forest, or the collection of decaying weeds of the thicket. Anywhere and
11
1(52
everywhere their small tunnels may be found. In no respect, that I know,
are they injurious, but in all laborers in their little spheres for good. It has
been thought, from the number of dead shrews that are sometimes found,
that these little mammals are subject to epidemics.
They are naked and blind at birth. None hibernate, but all move about
in the coldest weather. Shrews seem to be rejected as food by other ani-
mals, on account of an unpleasant odor they emit. Often have I known a
cat to catch one and carry it about for some time, apparently loth to give it
up, but never eating it and, in the end, rejecting it. Many superstitions are
prevalent in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, regarding these little
creatures but, so far as T know, nohe of them are notable in tlie folk-lore of
our land.
The most abundant shrew in our state, and perhaps the most widely dis-
tributed in the United States, is the short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicavda,
(Say ) . An interesting account of u nest of this species is given by my friend,
Mr. Charles Dury, of Avondale, Cincinnati, Ohio, in a letter of Dec. 28, 1891.
The notes have since been published, (Journal Cincinnati Sdc. Nat. Hist.,
1892, p. 183), and I give them here:
"It is well known to entomologists that some very curious and interesting-
insects live in the nests of mice and other small mammals. December lo.
1891, I went out to hunt nests of 'field mice,' in hopes of finding a wonder-
ful little beetle, called Leptimus testaceous, said to live in such nests. This
species was an especial desideratum to me, as I had never succeeded in find-
ing it. I went to an old orchard, and under the first log rolled over I dis-
covered a nest and secured a mouse as she rushed out. She proved to be
the 'Short-tailed Meadow Shrew,' Blarina brevicauda, (Say). The nest was
made of small bits of leaves of the sycamore tree, lined with grass fibers,
and situated in a hole or pocket excavated in the ground. I lifted the nest
into the sifting net and sifted it over a sheet of white paper, and was over-
whelmed at the result. The fine debris was a jumping, crawling mass of
insect life, beetles, fleas, ticks and larvse. I gathered and bottled 106 Lep-
timns, and many ran over the edge of the paper and escaped. There were
over a hundred large, vicious looking fleas, most energetic biters (as I dis-
covered from those that secured a lodgment in my clothing). How the
mouse could live in such a den in a mystery. The other beetles associated
with Leptimus were Staphylinidx, or ' Rove Beetles ' of species new to me, and
so far I have been unable to identify them. Leptimus is a small, fiat beetle,
of a pale testaceous color, one-eighth inch long, without any trace of eyes."
1(58
A smaller shrew, which seems to be comparatively common in Vigo
county and is found in the Whitewater valley, is Blarina exilipes, (Baird.)
This shrew is locally known in Vigo county as the 'Bee Shrew," from its
habit of entering the hives and destroying the young brood.
A form from Hanover, Jefferson county, which is about the size of the
last mentioned, was identified by Prof. S. F. Baird as the Cinereus Shrew,
Blarina cinerea, (Bach.).
From Franklin county several very small shrews were sent to Dr. Elliott
Coues. He pronounced them the "Least Shrew," Blarina parva, (Say).
The species had remained unknown from the time of Say's description.
This is, perhaps, the smallest mammal in the United States, and seems to
be rather common in the Whitewater valley.
A specimen from North Manchester, Wabash county, taken by Mr. A. B.
Ulrey, proves to be the Common Shrew, Blarina platyrhinus, (DeK), which
has not before been found in the state. A revision of our shrews will prob-
ably soon be undertaken, and it is very much needed for they are now in a
verj- tangled condition. Further investigation will doubtless add other
forms to our fauna.
There are three species described by Puvernoy in 1N42, from this state,
that are not now known. They are :
Brachijsorex harlani, (Duver.), New Harmony, Ind.
Brachysorex brevicaudatus, (Duver.), New Harmony, Ind.
Amphisorex leseurii, (Duver.), Wabash valley, Ind.
I should like to request all who have specimens of shrews and other small
mammals to inform me of that fact, and to urge upon all our members the
importance of obtaining and preserving all such animals they can. Espe-
cially is such material desirable from all parts of the Wabash valley. The
specimens may easily be dropped into small bottles or jars of alcohol after
being tagged and marked, in lead pencil, with date and locality of capture.
A little co-operation on the part of the members of our academy, a little
thoughtf ulness in saving what is thrown in our way, will do much to clear
up many of the murky places in our nomenclature, many of the fogs along
the lines of geographical distribution.
164
NoTi:s ON Indiana Bikds. By A.mos W. Butlei;.
Since the publication of my recent paper on Indiana birds* several valu-
able notes have been received, relating to the birds of the state. Besides
these, a fuller notice of some of the brief notes given in the paper men-
tioned may be worthy of note. Not only is much additional information
needed as to the occurrence of birds within the state, but also it is of great
value to have continued observations on the range, breeding range and
habits of birds. From the results of such work, carefully performed, we
may map the range of birds by counties and even by townships, and, as a
result, be enabled to solve many of the knotty and unravelled problems of
geographical distribution. One of the labors which this academy may well
carry on, and none can be more valuable, is a biological survey of the state,
carefully and sincerely worked out.
Junco hyemalis shufeldfi (Coale). Shufeldt's Junco. The specimen of thifs
bird taken at Lafayette, and reported by Dr. Erastus Test, is the second one
taken east of Illinois. A single specimen having been taken in Maryland
near Washington. This is a form of the Rocky Mountain region which
seems to extend its range southeastward.
Ammodramus hensloivii (And.) Henslow's Sparrow. Mr. Ruthven Deane
informs me that he spent a day in July, 1891, making the acquaintance of
Henslow's Sparrows at English Lake, Ind. He reports seeing no less than
twenty-five specimens and says: "two of us killed about ten. They have
been there all summer." Within five days after receiv ing Mr. Deane's notes
my friend, Mr. Charles Dury, of Avondale, Cincinnati, Ohio, informed me
of a visit of two friends of his to English Lake in July and August. He said
they found Henslow's Sparrows rather common and breeding, and took
some specimens, including some young birds. An adult taken there was
kindly presented to me by Mr. Ralph Kellogg, one of the collectors. Upon
inquiry, I learned that these gentlemen and a friend visited the same
locality noted by Mr. Deane, and, further, that they were acquainted and
had collected in the same meadows.
Cistothoms steUarU ( Licht) . Short-billed Marsh Wren. I am under obliga-
tions to Mr. Deane, to whom I am indebted for many valuable notes, for
some o\)8ervations on the breeding of the Short-billed Marsh Wren in the
state. He says an employe at their club house at English lake brought in
a nest taken there two or three years ago. In Mr. G. Frean Morcom's col-
-The Birds of ladiaaa, with illustrations of many of the species, by Amos W. Butler.
(Transactions Indiana Horticultural Society, 3890.)
1(>5
lection is a set of live eggs of this species, taken at Davis Station, Ind.,
June 3d, 1887. Mr. C. E. Aiken informs me he found them in marshes
bordering sloughs in Lake county, in 1871.
Profonotaria citrea (Bodd) — Prothonotary Warbler. I desire to express my
appreciation of the work of Mr. Herbert W. McBride in exploring the
counties of Elkhart, Lagrange and Steuben, in Indiana, and St. Joseph
county, Michigan, thereby adding materially to our knowledge of the range
of the birds in that region, and especially in extending the known range
of the Prothonotary Warbler into all of these counties. It was found com-
monly in all but Steuben. This, with Mrs. Jane L. Mine's discovery of the
species in DeKalb county, is very interesting to students of bird distri-
bution.
For the following notes 1 am indebted to Mr. C. E. Aiken, of Salt Lake
City, Utah, well known for his zoological investigations in Colorado. He
formerly lived in Chicago and collected in northwestern Indiana, in 1860-
7-9 and 71, and occasionally in later years :
Ardea egretfa (Gmel) — American Egret. Mr. Aiken informs me it breeds
on the Kankakee river, near Water Valley, Ind.
Charadriuf. s'jiiatarola (L) -Black-bellied Plover. One was killed by Mr.
Aiken, in Lake county, in 1871.
Contopus horealis (Swains) — Olive-sided Flycatcher. Not rare in Lake
county where I obtained a number of specimens in 1871. (Aiken.)
Xanthocephalvs xanthocephaJus (Bonap — ) Yellow-headed Blackbird. Found
abundantly along the Calumet river, in Lake county, in 1871, (Aiken.)
CoccothravMes vespertina (Coop) — Evening Grosbeak. A large number of
specimens were obtained near Whiting Station, Ind., in 1886-7, by Mr. 11.
A. Turtle, of Chicago. (Aiken.)
Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm) — American Crossbill. One of the most
interesting of Mr. Aiken's notes is one of the occurrence of the crossbills in
the extreme heat of summer, in the vicinity of Chicago and northwest
Indiana. Of the American Crossbill he says: " In July and August, 1869,
this bird became very abundant in the door yards in Chicago, and remained
until late in the fall. They fed greedily upon seeds extracted from sun-
flowers and were so sluggish that one could approach within a few feet of
them, so that they fell an easy prey to boys with catapults. In the latter
part of August, of the same year, I found them common in flocks about
farm yards in Lake county, Indiana.
Loxia leucoptera (Gmel) — White-winged Crossbill. Accompanied the pre-
ceding species, in ]S(3;i, and remained through the winter. Noticed inLake
county preceding. (Aiken.)
Ammodramiis lecnntdl ( Aud) — ^Leconte's Sparrow. I am pleased to be able
to note, upon the authority of Mr. Aiken, the occurrence of this bird in
northwest Indiana. Aboijt April 15th, 1887, he observed two birds which
he thought were this species at Water Valley. About the same time in
1889, near the same place, he saw three of what appeared to be the same
birds. Two of them were shot and proved to be this species.
Geothlypin Jonaosa (Wils) — Kentucky Warbler. Mr. Aiken is able to ex-
tend the range of this species as far as Gibson Station, Ind., where, he
says, several specimens were taken in May, 1887.
In addition might be added that the extreme dryness of the fall for the past
two years has had a noticeable effect in lessening the number of marsh birds
and water fowl throughout the part of the state where shooting such game
is extensively indulged in. Rail, snipe and duck shooting has been worth-
less the past two autumns. Birds were few, for their favorite haunts were
unsuited to their wants. Marshes and sloughs were dry, as were the
creeks. Much of the lakes had disappeared, leaving instead " mud fiats."
Many species, ordinarily common, were rare and others altogether wanting.
The open winters two years past and so far this winter, have encouraged
many species which ordinarily pass the winter further south to remain with
us, and other species which stay in winter in litniterl numbers have re-
mained in quantities.
SOiME XOTKS ON TlIK IJIRDS OV IXDIANA." By R. WeS McBrIDK.
Loon, Urinator imher, Gunn. Mr. A. W. Butler, in his admirable and ex-
cellent catalogue of the birds of Indiana, says of the Loon, or Great North-
ern Diver : "I have no knowledge of their breeding within the state, al-
though they will probably be found to do so." 1 can personally testify
that it is a summer resident of Steuben county, and that it breeds in at
least two of the many beautiful lakes of that county. Their eggs have been
taken at Lake James and Crooked Lake. I have been familiar with those
lakes for more than twenty years, and have never failed to find them there
in summer. I have also seen them in the breeding season in Hamilton
Lake and ( iolden Lake, also in Steuben county ; in Turkey Lake, on the
1()7
line between Steuben and Lagrange counties, and in Bear Lake, Noble
county.
Yellow-bellied Wood-pecker, Sphyrapicus varing, L. Is said, in the cata-
logue, to have bred rareh', if at all, in DeKalb county since 1888. Herbert
W. McBride found a nest with three eggs near Waterloo, May 13, 1880.
Bobolink, DoJidtoni/x oryzivorus L. Ten years ago this bird was very rare
in DeKalb and Steuben counties. Now it is a common summer resident
and breeds in both counties. It is, however, still very rare in Elkhart
county, only a short distance west, with the apparent conditions not ma-
terially different.
Brown Creeper, Certhia familiaris americana, Bp. Of this bird Mr. Butler
says: " I have never known it to breed in the state, but Mr. H. W. Mc-
Bride thinks it breeds in DeKalb county." I can say positively that I know
it breeds in Steuben county. In my note-book I find the following under
date of May 8th, 1882: " Brown Creeper; taken near Golden Lake, Steu-
ben county, Indiana. Nest in crevice, where the bark had started from a
dead tree, about four feet from the ground, in a swampy tract in " Crane
town." Nest composed of sticks, bark and feathers. Six eggs, beauties.
Incubation commenced. Embryos about half developed." I have a very
distinct recollection of the matter. The "Crane town" referred to in the
.note is a heronry which we were exploring. The water was high and we
were in a boat. I placed my hand against a tree to push the boat past it,
when the bird llew off the nest, which was within a few inches of my hand.
The bird remained near me until after I had secured the eggs and exam-
ined the nest. The appearance and characteristics of the Brown Creeper
are so marked that it could hardly be mistaken for any other bird. I could
not possibly be mistaken in its identification. In addition to this, the lo-
cation and construction of the nest and the eggs themselves are all typi-
cal and characteristic.
Another nest and set of eggs were taken in May, 188.», at Fox Lake, near
Angola, by my sons, Charles H. and Herbert W, The identification in this
case was as satisfactory and unmistakable as in the other. Since that time,
while I have frequently seen them during the breeding season, both in
Steuben and DeKalb counties, I have found no other nests.
Tufted Titmouse, Pares bicolor, L. Is noted in the catalogue as an occa
sional straggler in northern Indiana. It breeds in Elkhart county. June
12th, 1891, Herbert W. ]\IcBride found a nest near Elkhart containing seven
young birds.
168
The scales ok lepidoj-teka. By M. B. Thomas.
The kgeria ok cextkal Ohio. By I). S. Kellicott.
Some ixsects ok Tasmania. By F. M. Webster.
[ABSTRA("r.]
Although occupying a position in the southern hemisphere similar as to
latitude to the northern half of Indiana and southern Michigan, the insect
fauna more nearly resembles that of southern Texas, being strikingly semi-
tropical. In the vicinity oi Hobart, during the last of January, a season
corresponding to our August, Phytophagus coleoptera, especially of the
C'hryeomelidif and Rhynchophora, were very abundant, while carniv-
orous species, though strikingly poorly represented, included several Coc-
cinellidfe and one Lepidopterous species— a rare object in any country. A
noticeable feature, but one peculiar to island insects, was the lack of flying
species along the coast.
A single butterfly, swift and strong of wing, was the only capture made in
Lepidoptera. Another feature of island insects was noticed in the prepon-
derance of species of a bronzy or yellowish color. The young euculyptus
trees afford a rich field for collectors during the summer season.
Early published i;EFEJtExci;s to ix.iuriois ixsects. By F. M. Webster.
The coxtixuity of the germ klasm in vertebrates. By Carl H. Eigex-
MAxx. Published in part in the Journal of Morphology, pp. 481-492,
plate XXXI, 1892, under the title " On the precocious segregation of
the sex-cells in Micrometrus aggretatus Gibbons."
The theory of the continuity of the germ plasm as finally formulated by
Weismann assumes that "there is not only a continuity between the
ovum which gives rise to parent and the ovum which gives rise to the oflf-
spring " but in the successive generations between the ovum which pro-
1()9
duces the parent and the ovum which produces the offspring the character
of the original ovum is never lost by differentiation. There is then a con-
tinuous chain of reproductive cells quite apart from the body cells or
more frequently a series of body cells through which the unchanged germ
plasm of the parent is transmitted to future generations. The germ cells
are, therefore, not the product of the adult Ijody but the direct offspring
from the germ cell of the preceding generations.
The observations bearing out much of this theory have been mostly con-
fined to invertebrates. All of our works on the comparative anatomy of
vertebrates, as well as our works on embryology, tell us that the sexual or-
gans in vertebrates arise from the germinal epithelium which is not differ-
entiated until the embryo is completely formed. The most lucid descrip-
tions of the early stages were given by Balfour for Elasmobranchs ten
years -ago, and the latest observations published by Jungersen in 1889 have
not given anything concerning the stages less than two millimeters long.
While preparing the sections for the ontogeny of C>imatogaster aggr'egaius,
one 'of the viviparous Embiotocidae, I frequently observed large, indifferent
cells in the mesoblast. I at first supposed them to be cells in a pathologi-
cal condition. When, however, all the eggs from one ovary were observed
to contain such cells, I re-examined every embryo, and soon found that the
cells are not pathological, but are a normal structure present in all embryos
of a certain age. Further study showed them to be sex-cells of the future
germinal epithelium. Our knowledge of the early stages of the sex-cells
of vertebrates does not extend back beyond the condition described by
Balfour and .]ungersen. In the present study I have been able to trace
them back to probably the fifth segmentation.
Our knowledge of the sex-cells in general has been summed up by Weis-
mann as follows : " In certain insects the development of the egg into the
embryo, that is, the segmentation of the egg, begins with the separation of
a few small cells from the main body of the egg. These are the reproductive
cells, and at a later period they ai"e taken into the interior of the animal
and form its reproductive organs. Again, in certain smaller fresh-water
Crustacea (Daphnidte) the future reproductive cells become distinct at a
very early period, although not quite at the beginning of segmentation, i. e,
when the egg has divided into not more than thirty segments. Here also
the cells which are separated early form the reproductive organs of the
animal. The separation of the reproductive cells from those of the body
takes place at a still later period, viz. at the close of segmentation, in Sag-
170
itta, a pelagic free-swimming form. la vertebrata they do not become dis-
tinct from the cells of the body until the embryo is completely formed."
It will be seen that in some vertebrates (Cf/matogasfer) a similar segregation,
of " germ plasm " takes place quite early. In brief, the sex-cells of Cumato-
'/aster first become normally conspicuous in the mesoblast where the germ
layers are fused before any protovertebra- are tormed. They can be seen
in earlier stages, but they do not stand out so prominently from the other
cells. In exceptional cases, the sex-cells can be traced back to probably
the fifth segmentation.
The sex-cells can first be distinguished from the surrounding cells about
the time the blastopore closes. The earliest ones distinguishable, exclu-
sive of abnormal cases, are from an ovary in the eggs of which the blasto-
pore is not yet closed, or is just closed and in which the mesoderm is not
yet split off from the entoderm. Only two cells which can with certainty
be said to be sex-cells are seen in one of these eggs. They differ from
the surrounding cells in having well-defined, rounded outlines, and in
the distribution of the chromatin in the nucleus. The chromatin of Ihe
surrounding cells is collected in one, or, if the cells are undergoing divis-
ion, in two or three masses. The chromatin of the sex-cells is uni-
formly distributed in email granules.
In the eggs of another ovary, in which thickenings are formed for some
distance, and the mesoblast is separated from the entoderm by a well-
marked line, the sex-cells stand out from the surrounding cells with great
prominence. This is not due to any marked change in the sex-cells them-
selves, but rather to the fact that the surrounding cells have undergone
further division and are crowded so that the boundaries are not defined ,
while those of the rounded sex-cells are well marked.
The largest and most conspicuous cell of this stage lies in the mesoblast
just beside the chorda. It measures 18x23 m, and has a nucleus measuring
about 6 }n. On comparing this with segmenting eggs, it is found that
it agrees in size with some of the cells of an egg undergoing the ninth seg-
mentation and in all probability it is a cell remaining unchanged from that
stage. It contains yolk particles. Most of the sex-cells are collected in a
limited region at this stage in the thickened portion of the embryo, where
the three germ layers fuse. This would lend force to the supposition that
they are derived from two cells at most— one dextral and one sinistral.
There are a few scattered cells in other parts of the embryo which cannot
be so derived unless they early migrate from their original position.
171
There are, on an average, thirteen sex-cells in an egg of this stage. The
largest number noticed is seventeen, the smallest nine.
In a larva just hatched, the longest diameter of which, measuring in a
straight line, is 0.45 mm., there are ten sex-cells. In this embryo about
nine protovertebra? have been formed. Most of the sex-cells are large, the
largest having a diameter of 23 rii, with a nucleus of 8 m. The smallest cell
measures but 11 ;/* in diameter. The distribntion of these cells has become
markedly changed from the conditions obtaining in the two-proto vertebra'
stage. Two of the cells, in the embryos examined, are found in the
cephalic region, one on either side a short distance posterior to the or-
igin of the chorda. The remainder are distributed as follows: one below
the seventh sinistral protovertebra ; three in the left side of the tail, i. e.
in the region in which protovertebrae have not yet appeared ; and three in
the right side of the tail.
The cells in this stage stain deeper and much more uniformly than the
surrounding cells with Grenacher's hamatoxylin. They greatly resemble
the very early conditions of these cells, and the number would seem to in-
dicate that there has been no segmentation since the two-proto vertebra-
stage. In other larva^ of the same stage there are ten, eight, five, and nine
cells, respectively.
In larvpe 2.5 mm. long there are fourteen to sixteen cells and the num-
ber cannot have been increased much since their earliest condition, even if
we assume that two or more have been lodged in the gill region, and two
in the anterior part of the body. The majority of the cells in this larva
are confined to a region only 0.20 mm. long; and if we consider the doubt-
ful cells in the anterior region, the total length over which these cells are
distributed is about 0.50 mm. from the anus forward. The sex-cells in this
stage measure 9-13 >//. Balfour's admirable account of these "primitive
ova" (Elasmobranch Fishes, pp. 130-13(5) might almost be used bodily to
describe the same structures in Cymalogadcr and Ahrona 2.5 mm. long.
He observed that the younger ones contain many yolk spherules, and sug-
gests that the cells themselves may have migrated to their position from a
peripheral portion of the blastoderm, since " they are the only mesoblast
cells filled at this period with yolk spherules." He was at a loss as to how
they arose, and thought he could detect cells intermediate in size between
them and the neighboring cells. As has been seen, the yolk particles sim-
ply remain unchanged from the original condition when the sex-cells are
segregated.
172
Several figures would seem to indicate that one of the larger cells of an
early stage divides and gives rise to the groups of smaller cells in a later
stage. This can scarcely be the case, since the number of cells in the
earlier and later stages are about equal, unless a number of the earlier cells
atrophy or are resorbed. The loss of four cells, two in the gill region, and
two in the region of the fifth body somite, is probable, but even with the
addition of these, the number of cells in the last stage examined does not
exceed the average number in early stages when the cells are quite large.
The reduction in size can, therefore, be explained only by supposing that
the individual cells are reduced in size during development. It would be
interesting to consider here the causes that lead these sex-cells to again
grow and divide. Since, however, this process does not begin in the stages
under consideration, this matter must be left till later stages are examined.
Biological Stations. By Cakl H. EKiEXMAXN.
The early naturalists noted briefly the animals and plants they saw at
home or abroad. A few centuries later they added figures to their enumera-
tions. Later still skins were preserved, and last of all the whole animals
were preserved, gathered into large museums, where they soaked and rotted
twenty- five years, perhaps, before some one came along to study them.
Some of our ornithologists and conchologists, and even some ichthyologists
have not yet passed beyond this skin stage in their development. Many
others, on the other hand, have passed this last stage and have ceased to
contt-nt themselves with the catalogueing of specimens and now stud^-^ the
method, whys and wherefores of the things about them.
This school was established when .Johannes Midler first dipped a net for
pelagic animals. When it was found that the hows, whys and wherefores
could best be studied in the lowest creatures, naturalists flocked to the sea
shore, at first during their vacations. As methods for study increased and
apparatus multiplied permanent Marine Biological Stations were evolved.
First of these were the Naples Zoological Station and Agassiz's School at
Penikese, both established in 1873. The aims of the two were slightly
different. The Naples station was for original investigation. The Penikese
school it was hoped would awaken an interest in zoology in America. There
are now a large number of stations along the P^uropean coast, some large
and some small, but it is not the intention to speak of these.
173
Penikese died with Agassiz. I have lately been on a pilgrimage to the
old buildings. The motto " eat, drink and be merry " still hangs in the old
dining-hall. On the walls of the lecture-room are the mottoes placed there
by Agassiz's pupils : " A laboratory is to me a sanctuary. I would have
nothing done in it unworthy its great author." "Study to translate what
actually exists. Be courageous enough to say ' I do not know,' " and " Study
nature not books." The outlines of the last lecture delivered at Penikese
eighteen years ago are still on the blackboard. At this w^indow Dr. Whit-
man stuffed terns, at the other Dr. Brooks cracked clams and at another Dr.
Jordan studied seaweeds.
Penikese had been donated and the buildings erected by a tobacco mer-
chant, Anderson, of New York. It was found that the location was too
inaccessible and the fauna of the island too poor so that the $30,000 buildings
were abandoned for less commodious but more favorably situated quarters.
There are at present several marine laboratories on the coast of America,
and several summer schools which are located on the seashore, and do a
certain amount of marine biological work.
In 1881 a number of Boston women established a laboratory at Annis-
quam, Mass., where students and teachers could work during the summer.
These ladies were afterwards instrumental in the foundation of the Marine
Biological Association whose laboratory is at Woods Holl on Vineyard Sound.
Alexander Agassiz several years ago built the Newport Marine Labora-
tory, to which he has frequently invited students. Here the advanced
students of Harvard University work during the summer. This laboratory
is the best equipped of any in the United States, but it is practically private
aud has room for but eight students.
The United States Fish Commission, after spending several summers at
various places on the Atlantic finally built a permanent station at Woods
Holl. This is by far the largest station in America and it was Professor
Baird's hope and intention to make it the equal of the famous station at
Naples. But the elaborate laboratories, aquaria, docks, boats and large
hotel did not attract the men it was hoped to collect.
Another laboratory has lately been established on Long Island, but of this
nothing definite can be said yet. Still another has been established by
the University of Pennsylvania.
This brings us back to the station of the Marine Biological Association
which deserves a better notice.
174
It is by far the most important in its scope, aims, methods and future
prospects. It is chiefly supported by the munificence of Boston people.
The buildings consist at present of the laboratory and the newly acquired
dwelling house. The north side of the upper floors is divided into small
rooms 7x10 feet. Each of these is supplied with a table, an aquarium,
sink, shelves and a full set of reagents and glassware. These rooms are oc-
cupied by investigators doing independent work and are offered free. The
remaining portion of the second floor is occupied by the library, the
director's rooms, reagent room and the laboratory of the advanced stu-
dents. The lower floor by the lecture room and laboratory for students
most of whom are teachers at one place or another.
This is the Mecca of the modern school of naturalists, and there are
collected, at this place, teachers and students from all the leading institu-
tions.
The laboratories for students are open during July and August. Investi-
gators come earlier and stay later.
In enumerating what has been done on the east coast it is perhaps well
to state what may be done on our west coast. Our eastern laboratories
necessarily close during winter. On the Southern California coast where
the thermometer never records the freezing point ice does not drive the
investigator away in winter. The boundless wealth of the fauna and flora
together with the favorable climate will doubtless sometime attract to this
region a number at least the equal of that now collected at Woods Hull or
Naples. At present the sole marine station on the whole coast is my little
laboratory at San Diego which is a mile from the shore and the windows of
which are now nailed up.
I have before [San Francisco Chronicle, November 30, 1890.] urged the
establishment of marine laboratories on the west coast where they can equal
the Naples station and it is to be hoped that one may soon be endowed not
only for elementary work but for original research with a permanent corps
of investigators.
P. S.— Since this was written Timothy Hopkins has endowed a marine lab-
oratory to be established at Monterey, and Adolph Sutro will maintain
another at the entrance of San Francisco Bay. "Who will utilize the best
locality— San Diego ?
175
The eyes of blind fish. By Carl H. Eigexmann. Published in Proc. U.
S. JVat. Mus. for 1S92, with plates.
[abstract.]
Whenever the conditions are favorable blind fishes are developed. These
are always related to species inhabiting neighboring open waters. Blind
fishes are found in caves, in the deep sea, and at San Diego one lives
beneath rocks. While such regions usually contain blind fishes not all the
fishes inhabiting these regions are blind. Many species found in the deeper
parts of the ocean have well developed eyes, while others living in shal-
lower water are blind. The explanation for this fact probably lies in the
length of time a given species has inhabited the present locality. In all
blind fishes the eyes have undergone a process of degeneration. This is
very strikingly seen in the development of the Point Loma blind fish, Typh-
logolnu calif or niensis Steindachner. The embryo, before it is hatched, has
eyes as well developed as the embryo of any other fish. When the indi-
viduals have reached the length of an inch they can still see a short distance,
but it is evident that the eye has stopped growing long before this age
is reached. In the adult condition the eye has become degenerate and
covered with a thick skin, and the fish is totally blind.
On the PKE^<E^■CE OF an o]'ERfi lum IX THE Asi'KEDiNiD.K. By Carl II.
Ei«;enmann. Published in American Naturalist, Januar}^, 18!)2. p. 71,
plate VI.
[abstkact.]
In our " Revision of the South American Nematognathi," (p. 9) we de-
fined the Bunocephalidfe — Aspredinidte as having no opercle. In this we
followed Cope, who separated the Aspredinidae from the remaining Nema-
tognathi by their lack of an opercle.
We have lately obtained a specimen of Asjyredo aspredo Linnaeus from the
Museum of Comparative Zoology, and have re-examined this point. The
closer inspection has demonstrated the presence of a minute operculum at-
tached to the upper posterior border of the expanded hyomandibular. It
is movable in moist preparations but becomes immovably fixed with dry-
ing, which may have led to the original statement. The interopercle is
about as large as the opercle, and apparently immovably joined to the hy-
amandibular and preopercle. (The skull of this species, with the suspen-
sorium, was figured. )
176
A KicviEW OF THE E.MiuoTociD V.. Bv A. B. T'lrev. In press. Report of the
U. S. fish commission.
[austkact.J
On examining specimens of this family and the literature bearing on the
subject, I find the following species, with their localities :
1 . Hypsurus caryi Agassiz. Habitat : Coast of California from San
Diego to San Francisco.
2. Damalichthys argyrosomus Girard. Habitat: Pacific coast from San
Diego to Vancouver Island.
3. Hyperprosopon analis A. Agassiz. Habitat: Port Harford to San
Francisco. Rare.
4. Hyperprosopon argenteus Gibbons. Habitat : Astoria to Encenada.
o. Hyperprosopon agassizi Gill. Habitat : Coast of California.
(). Holconotus rhodoterus Agassiz. Habitat: Coast of California from
San Francisco to San Diego.
7. Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz. Habitat: San Diego to Cape
Flattery,
5. Rhacochilus toxotes Agassiz. Habitat : San Francisco to San Pedro.
9. Neoditremaransonneti Steindachnerand Doderlein. Habitat: Japan.
10. Ditrema temminckii Bleeker. Habitat: Japan.
11. Ditrema smittii Nystrom. Habitat: Japan.
12. Embiotoca jacksoni Agassiz. Habitat: San Diego to Puget Sound.
i;;. Phanerodon lateralis Agassiz. Hal>itat: Vancouver Island to San
Diego. Rare southward.
14. Phanerodon furcatum Girard. Habitat: San Diego to San Fran-
cisco.
15. Phanerodon atripes Jordan and Gilbert. Habitat : Monterey to Cor-
tes Banks.
in. Brachyistius frenatusGill. Habitat: San Diego to Puget Sound.
17. Brachyistius rosaceus Jordan and Gilbert. Habitat: Ofi" San Fran-
cisco in deep water.
18. Cymatogaster aggregatus Gibbons. Habitat: Pacific coast of the
United States.
10. Abeona minima Gibbons. Habitat : San Diego to San Francisco.
20. Abeona aurora Jordan and Gilbert. Habitat: Monterey Bay.
21. Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons. Habitat: California (Sacramento
river in fresh water).
GENERAL INDEX.
INDEX.
ACETONE, condensation with benzoin,
Acetophenone, condensation with ketol;
Aeheta abbreviata. i:'>2.
vittata, 1.!").
Acrididae of N'igo county, lo.
Action of phenyl-hydrazin on furfnrol,
Actinia. 20.
Aesthesionieter, li'..
-Vegeria of Central Ohio, IfiS.
-Vgkistrodon, breeding habits, etc. of lO"
Agkistroilon, contortrix, 107, IDS.
piscivorus, los.
-Vlbumen in urine, :!0.
Allen county Karnes, is.
Allocystites, 67.
.\mblystoma tigrinum, 21.
Amblystomas, 22.
Animodramus henslowii, 1(1 1.
leconteii. Hid.
Amphisore-x lesenrii, 10:'..
Amphiuma means, 22.
.Vnaxipha pulioiiria, 1:17.
Anaxiphus, 12H, i:!7.
Anchor ring, sections of M.
Anilic acid, 27.
Annelida, 118.
.\nthrozoa, 08.
Apatuna ccltis, ;;i.
.Vpical growth of Botrychinm, 71i.
of Pinns, 7i>.
of Tsuga, 79.
.Vpithes, 12S, l;iu.
agitator, 1:10.
azteca, ].'!9.
McNeilii, l:w.
qnadrata, K\).
.\rch:cological discoveries, 2r>, ;)s.
methods, 98.
research, 2G.
.Vrchegoninm of Finns. 79.
of Tsnga, 79.
.\rdea egrctta. Km.
17. Argyunis diana, 19.
■;,4('i. Arizona plants, 28.
.\rizona plant zones, 25.
.\rkansas, ir>.
Arthropods, 24.
S7. Arthur, J. C, 97.
Asprenidae, onthe presence of an opercul-
um in, 17.5.
Aster, 2.').
. 108. Astronomical study in Indiana, 24.
.\tmospheric electricity, 2<').
-Vtomic weight of oxygen, 27.
.Vutomatic repeater, :14.
BACTERIA CULTURE, 15.
Bacterial disease of sugar-beet root, 92.
liaker, P. S., 55.
Bamberger, E., 58.
Bascanion constrictor, breeding habits of,
106, 119, 120.
Beet-root, diseases of, 92.
Benzoin, condensation with acetone, 47.
Beta-nitro-paratolui(> acid. 27.
Bigney, A. J., 1.51.
Biological stations, 19, 172.
Biological survey.s, 18, 76.
Bird migration, 19.'
Birds, destruction of, 16.
iMrds, Indiana, 164, 166.
Black racer, 106, 119, 120.
Blarinabrevicauda, 162.
cincrea, 16;!.
platyrhinus, 16:!.
parva, 16:!.
Blue jay, 21.
Blind fishes, 24.
ancestors of, 21.
Botany, systematic, is.
Botrychium, 17, 27.
Botrychinm, sporangiiim and apical growt
79.
F>rachiopoda, 68.
Branchi]ius, 22.
tl
Branchysorex hnrlanii. 16;?.
brevicaudatiis, l(i:5.
Brown, W. v., 04.
Buckeye, a Kansas species, 74.
Buffalo gnats, 01.
in Illinois and Indiana. l-W.
Building stone. <iuality of. fin.
Butler. A. W., IGl, 104.
CACTACE.K, spines of. l'.'.
Cactus flora of the Southwest, 92.
California viviparous fishes. 19.
Campbell, J. L., 98.
Carhoxylated derivatives of beii7.o<ininone,
27.
Carbon dioxide in the urine, :!(), 4s.
Carbonic acid in the air, 00.
Carolina parakeet, 17.
Carroll county birds, 19.
fishes, 19.
Carya alba, 27.
stomata of, 70.
("aryorrinus, 07.
Cephalanthus oc^cideiitalis, l:'.s.
Cejihalopoda, Os.
Certhia familiaris, 107.
Chu'todontida', 19.
Charadrius sqnatarola, lO.'i.
Character of well waters in a thickly popu-
lated area, .'>(j.
Chloranil, 07.
Chlorine estimations, is, 19.
(Chloroform, U.
Chrysomelid;r Tasmanian, lOS.
Cincinnati siluriau island, 18.
(Jistothoriis stellaris, 101.
Cleistogamy in Poly.soniiim. 92.
Cnicus discolor, l.'i.
Cocoaine, 14.
Coccinellidae Tasmanian, 108.
Coccothranstes vespertina. Km.
( ocflicienl of expansion of solids. J.'i, 20.
Colaptes, 00.
Collecting mosses, II.
(^oUett glacial river, 17.
Colors of letters, 24.
Colors of sounds, 24.
Color variation. 21.
Columbian Exposition and science. 9s.
Committees, 2.
past. 0,.
Conipanion plants, 26.
Composita', organogeny of. 79.
(Condensation of acetone with benzoin. 17.
Conifer;e, 18.
Contopus borealis. lO.'i.
("ontrol magnet, 27.
Copper ammonium oxide, 14.
Copperhead, 107, los.
Corals, 07.
Corncob pentaglucose, 29.
Cornus, distribution of, IS.
Coulter, ,lohn M.. 7i).
Coulter, ,=!tanley, 92.
Cray tish, 21, 22.
Cray fishes of Indiana, 117.
Cremation. 17.
Crepidula, 27.
Crickets, 12s.
Crinoidi;e, OS.
Crustaceie, OS.
Crotalidae. 107, 109.
Crustaceans of Indiana, 147.
Curimatina', 19.
Cyprinodon, 19.
DAVI.S, SHERMAN, 49.
Dearborn county, 14.
Decatur county, physical geography of, 2S.
fishes, 29.
butterflies, 29.
I>evel<)pment of viviparous fi.shes of «'ali-
foruia, l'i9.
Diagrams from iron and steel, 20.
Di- benzyl carbinamine, 27, 28.
Diemyetylus viridescens. Hay on. 111.
Digestibility of the pentose carbohydrates.
Diseases of sugar-beet root, 92.
Diplodus, 19.
Dolichonyx oryzivoiiis, 107.
Drift deposits, Oti 07.
Drift, limit of, l.'i.
K.MlTIKil'AKK CENTER, ;!0.
Eburia (luadrigemiuata, 2.').
Egg membrane. 19.
Eigenmann, C. II., 1.59, 109, 172. 17.').
Eigenmann, (.'arl H. and Rosa, l-'>9.
Elaps fulvus, l.'il.
Elasticity constant, 20.
Electric currents, strength of, 20.
P^lectro-magnet, 20.
I'leetromi'ter, new, 20.
Embiotocida', a review of, 170.
Emys, concinna, 22.
concinnus, loO.
Horidana, loO.
Eutainia, breeding habit, etc., of. 109.
saurita, 111.
sirtalis, 109.
Entomology, economic. 20.
in high schools, 2.'i.
Entoniologizing in Mexico, 144.
Euzym, relation in seed to growth, 97.
T>IDEX.
Krythrinia', 19.
Eels of America aud Europe, ii4.
Estimation of chlorine by Volhard's plan, I'.i.
Equations, graphical solution of, '>'.
Evolution, 17.
and Lebanon beds, is.
address on, .'.o, 4.').
FAUNA, river and island, s:!.
Field aud home crickets, l:!2.
meetings, 9.
Fisher, E. W., 79.
Fishes, distribution of, l'3.
dispersion of, 24.
aspredinidiv, on the presence of an
operculum in, ]7"i.
development of the viviparous lishes
of California, 1">9.
Floral decorations, 21.
Floras, Arizona, 97.
Florida, S3.
Henry county, 7ri.
Mt. Orizaba, sd.
I'utnam county, <S9.
western plants at Columbus, ( )hio, 9-1.
Florida ferns, .".(I.
Forests, distribution of certain trees. 92.
unused resources, 92.
Forms of nitrogen for wheat, •')•").
Fossils in Colorado, 17.
Fungi, connecting forms aiiu)ng polyporoid,
92.
Fungus, plum leaf, 1 1.
Furfurol, 29.
(i.XRTEU SNAKi:s, breeding habits, etc.,
of, 109. 112.
Gasteropoda, OS.
Gautemalan composita^, 28.
Genera, origin of, 24.
Geolf)gist, training of, 1.').
Geology, town, 11.
( ieoiiietrical propositions, ;;o.
(Jeothlypis formosa, 100.
Germ plasm, continuity in vcrtcbrMta, los.
Ghost fishes, 29.
Grant beaver, 26.
Golden, Katherine V.., 92.
Graphical solution of the higher ei|Ua-
tions, .'>7.
<ireat lakes, 29.
(ireen, It. L., 05.
Grosbeak, evening, 10.
liryllida', 126, 127, 12s.
key to family, 12.
of Indiana. 120.
• iryllotalpa. 128,129, 130.
longipennis, 131.
brevipennis, 130.
borealis, 131.
Columbiana, 131.
Gryllus, 12S, 132, 133.
abbreviatus, 130, 132. 137.
luctuosus, 133.
Pennsylvanicus, 134.
(iuaymas, fishes of, 23.
HALDEA, breeding habits, etc.. of, 120.
Halids, vapor densities, 14.
Hathaway, A. 8., 57, 03, 6.'i.
Hay, O. P., 32, 100, 120, 144.
Hay. W. P., 147.
Height of the atmosphere, 29.
Helodcrma suspectum, l.'v2.
Henry coiinty flora, 20.
prehistoric earth W(irks.
Heterodon platirhinos, breeding habits, etc.
of, 114.
llisteresis curves, 0.5.
Ilolfmanseggia, the genus. 29, 79.
Hognosed snake, breeding habits, etc.. of,
114. lis.
lloltzman, C. L.. 79.
Hubbard, Geo. ('., 77.
Hudson river or Cincinnati group, extent
of, OS.
Hudson river, location of upper limits of, C<'.\.
Owen, Prof. Richard, views
of. 09.
Huston, II. A.. .5.5, .57.
Hydra fusca, 21.
Hypnotism, 17.
INDIANA, acridida-, 15.
birds, 10, 17, 20, 25, 104.
butterilies, 15, 31.
botanical work in. 17.
concliology, 20.
Cray fishes, 147.
crustaceans, 22, 147.
earth(iuake, 15.
entomcdogy, 14.
erosion, 28.
feeding material, 2:'..
Hshes, 23.
Ilora, additions to, 22, 23.
origin of, 17.
peculiarities of, IS.
forest trees, is.
fungi, 20.
geodetic survey, 17.
geography, 28.
geology, 15.
gryllid:r. 15.
INDIANA, herpotology, 24.
insects, iujurious, ;;i.
invertebrate zoology, ii.
lakes, 18.
lichens, I'.i.
mammals, 2n.
mammology. 28.
meteorology, 'is.
mildews, 17, 164.
ornithology, Ki.
lihysics, 20.
reptiles and amiiliil)ians,
shrews, 17, 1(14.
star nosed mole in, 19.
statistical investigations. 111.
wood ibis in, IS).
Infection, contest against, iS.
Infinity and zero in algebra, 20.
Insect increase and decrease, ;il.
In.sects, iijjnrious, earliest imhlished refer-
ence to, 16S.
Insects of Tasmania, 68.
Integrations, some theorems of, (i:l.
Invertin fermentation. :!().
Isthmus of Panama, 24.
Isootes, macrospores, 17.
JKFPRRSON roiTXTV BIRDS, 23.
Ijuttertties, 22.
cystidians, 2:'..
wasps, 2:^
.lohnson county geo. section. 17.
Juglans nigra, 2').
.lunco hyemalis, Ifil.
K.VXKAKKE river, 39.
valley, :W.
Kellerman, W. A., 74.
Kentucky fishes, :;i.
Keokuk group, 14.
Kotols condensation with acctophonone, 4(;.
KelaTiea, 2:1.
Kellicott, 1). S , 108.
Kno.x Ciinnty plants. Jil.
L.\G()D()N, 19.
Lammellibranchiata, 08.
Lepidoptera. scales of, 30.
carniverous, 108.
Leptimus testaceous. 102.
Lesser striped ground cricket. 130.
Liverworts, 20.
I.ixus macer and concavus, :;i.
Loantharia rugosa, 28.
Longwinged crickets, i:!3.
Loxia curvirostra minor, 1('>.").
Long winged mole cricket, 131.
striped cricket, 130.
Lyons, K. Iv— See Van Nuvs. 'P. ('.. 10.
MACKINAC ISLAND, 29.
Madison, 23.
Magnetic permeability, 17.
Maiaclemys genus, observations on. 120. 120.
Malacdemys genus, geographica, 121.
oculifera, 121.
pseudogeographica, 121.
Mammalia, 67.
Man an evolution, 28.
Martin, G. W., 79.
Map tortoise, observation on, 121,
Matterhorn, top of, 3J.
Maumee glacier, 19.
Maxima and minima, 30.
McBride. R, \V.. Notes on Indiana birds.
106.
McDougal, D, T., 97.
Meetings, field, 9.
Members, -"i.
Mexico, 1.').
entomologizing in, 144.
^Microtome, a new compound. 77.
Migration of western ]>lants. 74.
^likels, Mrs. Rosa Redding, 70.
Minor planets, some of the, 2.'i.
Mole crickets, 129.
Monroe county, 15, 10.
Monstera deliciosa, 31.
Montgomery county, 14.
Mosses, 14.
Mottier, D. M., 79.
Mount Orizaba. 2s.
Moore, J. K., O-'i.
Mooreliead, Warren K.. 93.
Mucor. 14.
Musk Ox, 20.
Mycorhiza, 18.
Myriapods, 1.'), 24, 25.
Myrmecophila, 144.
Myrmelon absohitus, 132.
NARROW WINGED TRKK CIUf'KKT. 143.
National Herbarium, 18.
Natural gas and petro]e\ini, 27.
Naylor, J. P., 65.
Necturuus lateralis, 31.
Nematognathi of South America, 19,
Nemobius. 128, 1341, 135.
exiguus, 130.
fasciatus, 130,
fasciatus exiguus, I3ii.
vittatns, 135.
New crustacean fossils, 27.
New switch, 3.1.
Newt, notes on, 1 II.
Niagara group, fossils of, 07.
Niagara river, 28.
Nitrate of ili-bcnzyl carbinamine, 5,s.
Nitrogen from wheat, 'J.'i.
forms for wheat. 'i'\
Norlheru mole cricket, I8ii.
Notation, clianges in, (>').
Notothylas, 2ii.
Noyes. W. A.. "iCi.
Xumerieal radices, :!i).
Nyssa, stone characters of, 1<^.
OECANTHUS. 128, 138, MO.
angustipennis, 14:'..
latipeiiDis, 111, 14-1.
niveus, ] 11. Ul, 143.
oilicers, I.
past, o.
Ohio, aegeria of central, KW.
recent archaeological discoveries iu.
'.•S.
Orochari.'^. 1-28, ]:W.
saltator, 13s.
Organized work in chemistry,
orgaaogeny of compositae, 7'.i.
Ornithology, economical, 21.
orthis occidentalis and sinuata, 18.
<>rtho]>tera of Illinois, 2").
Osmundaeeae. 17.
Ontlook iu warfare a.uainst infection, 1 II.
Owen. 1). A.. 7(i, I-VJ.
Oxidation. 11.
Oxygen, atomic weight of, 27.
PACIFK^ DEEP WATER FISHES, 20.
I'ara-nitro-ortho-siilphamine - benzoic acid.
27.
Paraxyleue-sulphamide, 27.
Parus bicolor, 1{')7.
Peltandra undulata, 1 '.7.
Penta-glncoses, 2'.i.
Pentose carbohydrates, digestibility of.-'>7.
Periodicity in thermometers, 26.
of root-pressure, 2li.
Perkins synthesis. 14.
Petrolenm in southwest Indiana. :i(i.
Phenyl-hydrazin, action on furfurol, -'17.
Phosphate of alumina. 23. .57.
Pliosphoric acid, 23, .57.
.Photography without camera, 24, 27.
Photometric methods, 25.
Photomicrography, 18.
Phylloscirtus, 128, 137.
pulchcllus, ].!7.
l'hy.siology. .82,91.
Phytophagus coleoptera Tasnuiuian, Ids.
Picus. 30.
Pinus, archegouium and apical gfowth, 7ii.
sylvestris, 2(j.
I'lantae, ti8.
Plants, variations of, 14.
Plant zones of Arizona, !'7.
Plum leaf fungus, 14.
Polygonium, 18.
cleistoKamy in, '.i2.
Polyporoid fungi. 30.
Porichthys, phosphorescent organ of, 2'.).
Porifera, 6:'>,
Potato tuber, 14.
as means of transmitting energy. '.17.
Potential functions, history of, (15.
Potter, Theodore, 144.
Prairie rattlesnake, 147.
Prehistoric earthworks, ii5.
Protonotaria citroa, 105.
Protoplasm in mucor, 11.
Psychic pihenoniena, 31.
Pteropoda, 68.
Puccineae, 15.
Purdue I'niversity, Laboratory of, 20.
Putnam county fishes, 23.
flora, 30.
plants, 25.
Pyroneaud pyridone. from benzoyl acetone.
4.8.
Ol'ATERNION INTE(iK.\TI()N!^. 03.
t^iercus coccinea, 140.
llAFINESfiL'E, Sketch of, 21.
Rattlesnakes, breediug habits, etc of. 107, 109
Recent archieological discoveries. 08.
Recent methods of determination of pho.'^-
phoric acid. 57.
Redding, T. B., 76, 08.
Refractive index, value of, 31.
Religion and continuity, 2!.
Khlnoptera, new speci-^s of. 2o.
Rhynchophora Tasmanian, 1€.^.
Root pressure, apparatus for ])eriodicity. 2s.
SAILOR SPIDERS, 2:;.
Sandwich Islands, fishes of, 23.
Sap circulation, 2i;.
Scales of I^epidoptera, bis.
Scaphiopus holbrookii, 2o.
Seatou, H. E., .so.
Seismology, 26.
Seismoscope, 20.
Selby, Aug. D., 71. '
Shelby county earthquake, 27.
Shrews, Indiana, 161.
Simulium, meridionale, 1-58.
pecuarum, I.5.S.
Siphonophores, 2.s.
Sistrusus, breeding habits etc., of, lo'.i.
Smith, Alex., 46, is.
Snake cactus, 18.
Snakes, breeding habits of, fod-pjo.
Soap analysis, 28.
Some suggestions to tcafhors of scionco or
mathematics in high scliools, .")l.
Sorghum sugar,:!!.
Si>e('ies, descriptiou of. 1 1.
Si)hyra7)icus varius liiT.
Spirogyra, is.
Sporangium of Hotryohium, T'.i.
Spreading aider, Ijrceding liahits, etr., of,
111.
Starch in cereals, ;'.«.
Steamer ".Ml)alross." 'JO.
siellcrida, (is.
StomaUi developed by phylloxera, Tli.
Stone, W. K., .■)7.
Storeria dekayi, breeding habits, etc, of.
111.
Striped tree crieket, 148.
ground ericket, VM.
Sucrose in sorghum, 31.
Sugar beet iu Indiana, -Vi.
Sun fishes, 1").
Sun's light, '2>.i.
Sweet potatoes, 'i'.i.
Syuaptomys cooperii, Hi.
TAU'^miORIC COMPOrNDS, 27.
Tasmauian insects, :'.!, 16.s.
Taxodium di.stichum, is.
Texas, llora of, 18.
Ihomas, M. 1!., .si2, 16s.
'I'liysanura, '21.
Tillaudsia, 'iS.
usneoides, 17.
Tingle J. K. M.,(m.
Titanium, 27.
Toeppler-IIoltz machine, 25.
Tridaetylus, 12s-i2'.».
specialis, I2'.i.
miuutus. 1 f I.
terminalis, 111.
Tri phenyl benzene, formation of, 17.
Tropidonotus, breeding habits, etc., of, 112.
grab a mil, 11:'..
kirtlandii. 111.
leberis, lb!,
sipedon, 112.
Trusts, effects of, 23.
Tsuga, archegonium aud apical growth, 7!».
canadensis, 26.
Turtles, observations on, 12(i.
ILMUS AMKKIC.VNA. 1 in.
rmbellifer;c, 28.
("mbellifers, 13.
rnderwood, ly. M., «:!, s'.i, '.i2.
Urauoscopidie. 2.").
Trinator imbex, KKl.
Irine. blood in, 2').
I'nited States Coast and <leoliigical Sur-
vey. 2(i.
I'nited States F.sh Commission. 21.
VAN KUVS, T. (!., ."il, IS.
Veratum woodii, 2'.i.
N'ermillion, Xcwt., notes on, I 11.
\ernonica pascieulala. 111.
\'ertebrae in fishes, 21.
Vigo County compositic, !•').
drift, 2S.
fish. 1.1.
geology, 2s.
\i(ila i.edata, 30.
WAl'.ASli EUIE DIVIDK. IS.
Wabash Hshes, 20, 23.
Wabash river, 17.
Waldo, C. \., (m.
Waldo county. 17.
Water iu oils and fats, 2.'), oi).
Water moccasins, breeding habits, etc.,
of. 107.
Water snakes, breeding habits, etc., of. 112.
Water supply for cities in Northwestern In-
diana, 71, 72.
Chicago, location of pipe
line, 72.
New York, 27.
\Vebster, K. M., 155, l.")S.
Well waters, 27, .5(1.
Western plants, 2S.
at Columbus, Ohio, 71.
Wheatstonc's bridge, 27.
White climbing ericket, 141, 1 12.
White spored agarics, 2(i.
Wingless striped cricket, 13.'i.
XANTHOCEPHALrs.KANTIIOCKl'lI.M.I .^.
165.
-Kanthoxylum americanum, 13'.i.
Xylose. 29.
VKLLOWSTONK PARK, 21.
ZOOLOGY, systematic, 2-1.
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Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11